There was at that time no educated class, and no desire for education was exhibited among the more powerful section. Among the peasantry reading and writing were almost unknown.

Russia was then to a great extent in a state of lawlessness. In the large towns bands of robbers often paraded the streets, with whom the police were unable to cope. Soldiers were not infrequently called out against them, and pitched battles were sometimes fought. Little attention could be paid to the fine arts. It is therefore a matter of surprise that the small band of scholars who lived about the Court were able to stir up their imperial patrons to see the necessity for disseminating learning more widely.

Peter the Great was the first to make any real efforts to improve this state of things. He was, however, unfortunately too anxious to make Russia the greatest military power of the world, and although he founded many schools, their usefulness was marred by the fact that their main object was to fit the youth of the higher classes to become better soldiers and sailors.

It would be tedious to recount the history of the foundation of the several universities in Russia, and the motives which led to their establishment. The intentions of the emperors were narrow and confined. This is shown by many addresses which were delivered by themselves or their representatives. Great monarchs such as Elizabeth and Nicholas designed the university mainly as a nursery for officials of the state. Nicholas in a speech to the students of Kiev is reported to have said, 'It is not enough to study well; science alone leads to no good results. I require faithful sons to stand beside my throne, a devotion which knows no limit, a submission which does not reason, and an absolute obedience.' (Tikhomorov, 'La Russie politique et sociale,' etc.)

Count Schouvalov in the reign of the former, almost one hundred years before, had a better comprehension of the functions of a university; but still when addressing the assembled students he points to the doings of Peter the Great as if he were inciting a body of warriors to victory. But the acts more

than the speeches bear witness to the ideas which the emperors entertained. The governor-generals of the provinces periodically held reviews of the students, and military exercises were gone through. The detailed inspection was made by a colonel of regular troops. Sometimes the students had to parade at the house of the governor. The objects of these parades were twofold; first, to inspect the outward appearance and bearing of the alumni and see who had uniforms, as attempts were frequently made to avoid wearing the hated dress; and secondly, to acquaint the students with the faces of their superiors, so that there should be no excuse for not giving the proper salute. The inspector gave notice of the review, warning the student that he was 'to be shaven, washed, and correctly dressed.' The governor-general appeared with his suite, military and civil, to keep up the spirit of military discipline and to quicken the dormant feeling of submission.'

It is natural, therefore, that the Russian universities should still bear upon them the characteristic marks of their origin. The student has, theoretically, liberty to choose any profession, but he is often practically debarred from doing so. A friend, a Russian official, lately wrote to me as follows: The intelligent Russian does not wish to be an official, but he cannot help himself. If he becomes a village doctor or schoolmaster, nay even if he is friendly with the lower classes, he is immediately suspected, and put into gaol as a revolutionist. Nothing can be more painful than being a Russian; one never feels secure. Only that man is safe who has killed his conscience and reconciled himself to everything that is mean and low.'

There are eight Universities in the Russian Empire, exclusive of Dorpat and Helsingfors—the Universities respectively of the Baltic Provinces and Finland. Dorpat is passing through a crisis of change, and has always been more German than Russian. Out of 1,632 students in 1888-89, 1,179 were Protestants, and mostly of German descent, 250 Jews, and 95 Orthodox Russians. The other Universities of Russia are Moscow (founded 1755), Kazan (1804), Charkov (1804), St. Petersburg (1819), Kiev (1834), Odessa (1864), Warsaw (1869), and Tomsk (1889)in Siberia. All of them are endowed by the

State, and have to a great extent been organised after the German system.

Russia is divided into educational districts, in each of which there is a university. The Government appoint a Curator over each district, who directs all matters concerning public instruction. This official is generally a man of ability, and he acts as an intermediary between the Government and the higher schools. His duty is to see that all regulations are properly obeyed and enforced, as he is responsible for the discipline and order of the district. At the head of the University itself stands the Rector, who was formerly elected yearly, but now holds the position for four years, being eligible for re-appointment for a second. term of office. The appointment of the Rector is in the hands of the Minister of Public Instruction. The Rector is assisted in the government of the University by a Board composed of the deans of the four faculties, an inspector, of whom we shall speak afterwards, and an official appointed to look after the domestic economy. This Board had formerly extensive powers. To it was entrusted the opening of new schools, and its members constituted the University court. But these powers no longer belong to it. The Rector exercises considerable authority. All applications for admission to the University, for permission to migrate to another University, and for remission of fees, must pass through his hands. It is no uncommon occurrence to see thirty to fifty students waiting for an audience at his door at the appointed hour to ask for one or other of these privileges. He has also to discharge the duties naturally incumbent on the Rectorship. In extreme cases he has the right to 'take any measures he may deem expedient for the maintenance of order in the University,' even if they exceed his ordinary powers, but he must immediately give notice to the Curator, the Council, and the Minister of Public Instruction, together with his reasons for acting on his own responsibility.

The Council of the University consists of the professors, under the presidency of the Rector. Upon it devolves the right of selecting names to be submitted to the Curator and Minister of Public Instruction for appointment to vacant posts

of readers,' professors, as well as candidates for honorary degrees. The Minister is, however, not compelled to accept any of the candidates named, but may use his own discretion. All scientific societies in connection with the University come under the control of the Council. The members of these societies are very numerous, and exhibit great life and energy. The Government subsidizes them in Moscow, where they count over 600 members, with five thousand roubles a year.

The faculties were originally only three, but are now four, namely, Law, Medicine, Philosophy, Physics and Mathematics. The University of St. Petersburg has a faculty of Eastern languages, but none of medicine. Each faculty is composed of the Dean as president, and the professors of that faculty. The Dean is nominated by the Curator, but the nomination must be confirmed by the Minister of Public Instruction. The business of the faculty is to arrange all matters connected with examinations, prizes, and medals. Each faculty also draws out a list of students deserving exhibitions, which has afterwards to be submitted to the supreme Board of the University, and, if approved of, is sent on to the Curator for confirmation.

It was not easy in the reigns of Peter, Elizabeth, and Catherine II., when universities were new institutions, to find men qualified to occupy the professorial chairs. Very few Russians took any interest in education, and it was impossible during these reigns to get native scholars to fill the posts. Had it not been for the foreign blood which the Tzars attracted, no headway could have been made against the prevailing ignorance. Catherine II. was fortunate enough to induce Grimm to reside at her court. The difficulty of procuring suitable professors repeatedly presented itself, notwithstanding all the efforts of the Imperial house. Schools for training teachers were started, and young men were sent to the gymnasia and universities of France and Germany. To encourage the student further, a certain number received the title and emolument of extraordinary professor' while resident at the foreign universities, and in addition a promise was made to them that they would be appointed ordinary

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professors' on their return home. This practice of sending students to foreign countries forms one of the great encouragements given to scholars. Almost every year the Government or the University send a few men to carry on their researches in various countries, and facilities, such as free passports, are accorded to them.

The salaries attached to the extraordinary professorships, referred to above, ranged at that time from 200 to 400 roubles. The ordinary professor also enjoyed many privileges, some of which still belong to that position. He was permitted to leave and enter the empire when he liked without hindrance, and could bring back into Russia three thousand roubles worth of goods free of duty. When the censorship of books was established, it was provided that books should be delivered to professors without passing through the custom's office. Yet, in spite of all these measures, the demand for teachers exceeded the supply for upwards of seventy years.

Scholars, however, were invited from abroad, especially from Germany and Austria. This plan was accompanied by a serious drawback. The majority of the Germans, who came at the invitation of the Russian Government, were not conversant with the Russian language, and their lectures were therefore delivered in German, or Latin, to students often ignorant of both one and the other. To make matters worse, other complications occurred as soon as the nineteenth century dawned. A reaction set in against all such foreign elements. The jealousy which the Slav had always felt towards the Teuton now came to the surface, and many of the foreign professors were compelled to vacate their chairs. Men were nominated in their room who had little or no experience, and had often not completed their own studies. When Arakcheev was in power, the University of St. Petersburg possessed only one professor who was even slightly known to the outside world; hardly half-a-dozen were specialists. With respect to the others, says a contemporary, they not only knew nothing, but they were so indolent that they sought to conceal the sources of information from the pupils. As late as 1832, there were only five or six professors in the University of St. Peters