burg who had made any progress in science, and some of these were foreigners, who read their lectures in Latin.

The Russian Government, which always jealously watches the rising generation, has very frequently suspected the teaching given in the Universities not to be in harmony with the religion of the State, and has traced student disturbances to its influence: it has at times accused the professors of instilling into the minds of their pupils a spirit of defiance and disobedience. Many of the former have consequently been expelled, and others have been prosecuted before the tribunes. Drenteln, Governor-General of Kiev in 1884, openly censured the professors of Kiev, and laid the responsibility of the disturbances on their shoulders. The University,' he said, 'is chargeable with the crimes committed in Russia, and the root of the evil lies in the fact that the professors aim at popularity.' But we cannot discuss in this article the history and causes of these riots.

To make matters more difficult, books, such as Grotius, Newton, Buffon, and Comte, have been wholly excluded from the curriculum, and only expurgated editions of certain works were and are permitted to be used.

Arbitrary acts of Russian ministers occur on almost every page of the histories of the Universities; and if science and literature have progressed in spite of such interference, this has been owing to the efforts of the Russian student himself.

At the present day the Russian Universities are well supplied with able men, who love science for its own sake. They have now five distinct classes of teachers, viz., the emeritus professor, the ordinary or full professor, the extraordinary professor, the docent, and the lector or reader. To qualify for a chair, the candidate must have the degree of Doctor, and must have lectured not less than three years in the capacity of docent, but the Minister of Instruction has power to curtail this period.

A professor keeps his appointment for a term of twenty-five years, after which he may be re-appointed for another five years, at the discretion of the Curator and Minister of Instruction. After thirty years' service, he must retire from the

regular staff, but may, if he wishes, still retain the title of professor, with a seat on the Council, and may deliver lectures. He is, however, then called Emeritus professor,' and, as such, may continue for one or two additional periods of five years, always, of course, if the Minister of Public Instruction approves. The latter allows him 1200 roubles a year extra to his pension as Emeritus professor.'

The docents are the source from which professors are chosen. The five chief Universities possess about 350 ordinary and extraordinary professors, 210 docents, with some 20 lectors. Moscow has 95 docents. Teachers in the higher schools may also be docents in the University. Thus one of the most popular docents in Kiev is a master in one of the higher schools. When I attended lectures in the University of Kiev, the lecture-hall of this docent was crowded with over 200 students. The rivalry between professor and docent in Russia, as in Germany, is generally wholesome; it keeps the former from relaxing his exertions, while it stimulates the latter to greater exertions. The student who wishes to become a docent must obtain leave from the Faculty, and then, through the Rector, permission from the Curator.

The incomes of Russian professors vary very much. The ordinary and extraordinary professors are paid three thousand and two thousand roubles respectively, and fees in addition. The Rector receives 1500 roubles extra as Rector, and the Dean of each Faculty 600. The honorarium of a docent varies still more, being mainly dependent on the bounty of the Minister of Public Instruction, and on the recommendation of the Curator and Council.

The institution of Examination Boards similar to those in Germany was one of the chief improvements recently introduced, The members are nominated every year by the Minister. The examinations of these Boards are a guarantee to Government that the student on leaving the University has attained to the standard required for entrance into the Civil Service. No student is admitted to the examination who has not kept ten half-yearly terms in medicine, and eight in any of the other faculties. Each faculty prescribes set examina

tions for degrees, prizes, etc. In order to show the course of studies pursued in the Russian Universities, it may be well to describe, as a sample, what is done in Moscow.

In the school of ancient philosophy, Professor Grota, in 1890, took as his subject Plato's dialogues and the Platonic philosophy; three to four chapters of the former were gone through at each lecture. Docent Lopatina lectured on Kant. Ancient art was treated by Professor Tsvetaev, who illustrated his subject with plaster models of Greek art borrowed from the museum. In connection with this, Pliny's Naturalis Historia was read; the students being expected to study Brunn, History of Greek Art, Overbeck, History of Greek Sculpture, and Baumeister's Monuments of Classical Antiquities. Four other professors and six docents also lectured on various other branches of classical literature. One of the latter devoted himself especially to the intricacies of Greek and Latin style. Cicero, De Finibus, and Thucydides, book ii., were the basis of his lectures. Professor Miller lectured one hour a week in Sanskrit, using Boller's grammar.

In the department of Russian literature the well-known Professor Sokolov read twice a week on the Russian monuments of the eighteenth century. Old Slavonic has also many devotees. All over Russia and the Danubian provinces stones with inscriptions are continually being found, and much valuable information is gradually coming to light. In Kiev, Professor Vladimorov had a class of ten in 1890, and discoursed on ancient South Russian monuments of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries.*

In general literature many interesting authors were treated, among whom were Schiller, Beaumarchais, and Byron. Each foreign language has its lector, generally a foreigner.

In the mathematical and physical faculty, three professors and two docents were engaged in lecturing on pure mathematics; two professors and two docents on mechanics and its branches; while about twenty-five of both classes of teachers lectured on astronomy, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology

* In Bukarest, Professor Tocilescu is engaged on the same study.

and paleontology, botany, zoology, physiology, agriculture and anthropology.

In the other Universities the same subdivisions exist.

In the school of law Gaius and Justinian were expounded, due consideration being also given to other departments of law. The lecturer on police law took a survey of the institutions for public safety and comfort.

Students of medicine attend lectures from nine in the morning till eight in the evening, listening to men of world-wide reputations.

Oriental learning has been concentrated by Russia in the University of St. Petersburg, where an Oriental faculty was established in 1854, with professorial chairs, for the following languages Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Tatar dialects, Mongol and Kalmuck, Chinese, Hebrew, Armenian, Grusinian, Manchu, Pushtu, Tibetan, Sanskrit. The professoriate has not only been composed of Russian and German scholars, but also of native Orientals of high literary reputation. Kasembeg was the first professor of Persian. In his place the University has now Prof. Chernaev. Wassiljev occupies the Chair of Chinese as Emeritus Professor, having held it from the beginning. Dorn was the first lecturer on the Afghan languages, and Prof. Chwolson (now Emeritus Professor) devotes himself to Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac. All these names are well known to Orientalists in this country, as are also Beresin, Smirnov, and others. To give the student conversational practice in the language, native Arabs, Tartars, Chinese, etc., assist the professor, and sometimes receive a small salary.

It is interesting to note that Wassiljeff, when a young man, was sent to China by the University of Kazan to perfect himself in Chinese and Oriental studies.

The career of Prof. Chwolson is an example of perseverance and determination. He was born in 1822, the son of a poor Jew. At eighteen he was unacquainted with any language save his own, and only at that age did he begin to learn French, German, and Russian. Such was his diligence that in three years he was able to read with ease in any of these languages. Young Chwolson then proceeded to Breslau in

order to gain admission into the University, but he found that his want of classical knowledge debarred him from being admitted to the rights of a student. In 1844, however, he had overcome this obstacle and entered the University. Six years later he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Leipzig. His thesis on that occasion was on the 'Ssabeans and Ssabismus,' on which subject, in 1856, he published his monumental work, exhibiting great acquaintance with Arabic literature. In 1855 he joined the Greek Church, and was made Professor of Hebrew in the University of St. Petersburg, and afterwards Professor of Hebrew and Biblical Archæology in the Theological College in the same city. Prof. Chwolson's last important work is Corpus inscriptionum Hebraicarum, St. Petersburg, 1882.

Similar biographical notices are given in the History of St. Petersburg, but I have cited the above, having the pleasure of a personal acquaintance with Prof. Chwolson.

Besides these lectures, the professors occasionally give public prelections. But what still further testifies to the activity of the Russian professors is the list of works published by them. In the Universities of the Continent the scholar does not publish so much with a view to gain as to advance science. The study of Brotwissenschaft is not so universal as in Great Britain. The common question asked concerning a German 'Gelehrter' is, 'Was hat er geschrieben?' By this test the university man is tried.

In Moscow, during 1890, one hundred and thirty professors, out of a staff of one hundred and eighty-five, all told, published books or wrote articles.

The institution of the censorship of books has had a deterring influence on the Russian scholar. Catherine II., by an ukase in 1796, brought it into being 'to put an end to various inconveniences caused by the unrestrained printing of books,' and two scholars were named censors with salaries of 1000 roubles a year. The censorship was associated with the Universities down to 1835, when the connection was severed. The severity and stupidity of the censorship is too well known to require demonstration. Ministers of Public Instruc