and almost independent of each other; but, finally, these came into conflict, at the time of Galileo; and the war speedily extended to every part of civilized Europe.

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3. Scholastic Physics.-It is difficult to give briefly any appropriate examples of the nature of the Aristotelian physics which are to be found in the works of this time. As the gravity of bodies was one of the first subjects of dispute when the struggle of the rival methods began, we may notice the mode in which it was treated 20. Zabarella maintains that the proximate cause of the motion of elements is the form, in the Aristotelian sense of the term: but to this sentence we," says Keckerman, "cannot agree; for in all other things the form is the proximate cause, not of the act, but of the power or faculty from which the act flows. Thus in man, the rational soul is not the cause of the act of laughing, but of the risible faculty or power." Keckerman's system was at one time a work of considerable authority: it was published in 1614. By comparing and systematising what he finds in Aristotle, he is led to state his results in the form of definitions and theorems. Thus, "gravity is a motive quality, arising from cold, density, and bulk, by which the elements are carried downwards." "Water is the lower intermediate element, cold and moist." The first theorem concerning water is, "The moistness of

water is controlled by its coldness, so that it is less than the moistness of the air; though, according to the sense of the vulgar, water appears to moisten more than air." It is obvious that the two properties of fluids, to have their parts easily moved, and to wet other bodies, are here confounded. I may, as a concluding specimen of this kind, mention those propositions or maxims concerning fluids, which were so firmly established, that, when Boyle propounded the true mechanical principles of fluid action, he was obliged to state his opinions as "hydrostatical paradoxes." These were, that fluids do not gravitate in proprio loco; that is, that water has no gravity in or on water, since it is in its own place; that air has no gravity on water, since it is above water, which is its proper place; that earth in water tends to descend, since its place is below water;-that the water rises in a pump or siphon, because nature abhors a vacuum;-that some bodies have a positive levity in others, as oil in water; and the like.

4. Authority of Aristotle among the Schoolmen.The authority of Aristotle, and the practice of making him the text and basis of the system, especially as it regarded physics, prevailed during the period of which we speak. This authority was not, however, without its fluctuations. Launoy has traced one part of its history, in a book "On the various Fortune of Aristotle in the University of Paris." The most material turns of this fortune depend on the bearing which the works of Aristotle were sup

posed to have upon theology. Several of Aristotle's works, and more especially his metaphysical writings, had been translated into Latin, and were explained in the schools of the University of Paris, as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century. At a council held at Paris in 1209, they were prohibited, as having given occasion to the heresy of Almeric (or Amauri), and because "they might give occasion to other heresies not yet invented." The Logic of Aristotle recovered its credit some years after this, and was publicly taught in the University of Paris, in the year 1215; but the Natural Philosophy and Metaphysics were prohibited by a decree of Gregory the Ninth, in 1231. The emperor, Frederic the Second, employed a number of learned men to translate into Latin, from the Greek and Arabic, certain books of Aristotle, and of other ancient sages; and we have a letter of Peter de Vineis, in which they are recommended to the attention of the University of Bologna: probably the same recommendation was addressed to other Universities. Both Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas wrote commentaries on Aristotle's works; and as this was done soon after the decree of Gregory the Ninth, Launoy is much perplexed to reconcile the fact with the orthodoxy of the two doctors. Campanella, who was one of the first to cast off the authority of Aristotle, says, "We are by no means to think that St. Thomas

21 Mosheim, iii. 157.

aristotelized; he only expounded Aristotle, that he might correct his errors; and I should conceive he did this with the license of the Pope." This statement, however, by no means gives a just view of the nature of Albertus's and Aquinas's commentaries. Both have followed their author with profound deference 22. For instance, Aquinas 23 attempts to defend Aristotle's assertion, that if there were no resistance, a body would move through a space in no time; and the same defence is given by Scotus.

We may imagine the extent of authority and admiration which Aristotle would attain, when thus countenanced, both by the powerful and the learned. In universities, no degree could be taken without a knowledge of the philosopher. In 1452, Cardinal Totaril established this rule in the University of Paris". When Ramus, in 1543, published an attack upon Aristotle, it was repelled by the power of the court, and the severity of the law. Francis the First published an edict, in which he states that he had appointed certain judges, who had been of opinion", "que le dit Ramus avoit été témeraire arrogant et impudent; et que parcequ'en son livre des animadversions il reprenait Aristotle, estait évidemment connue et manifeste son ignorance." The books are then declared to be suppressed. It was often a complaint of pious men, that theology was corrupted by the influence of Aristotle and his com

22 Deg. N. 475.

24

Launoy, p. 108, 128.

23 F. Piccolomini, ii. 835.

25 Launoy, p. 132.

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mentators. Petrarch says", that one of the Italian learned men conversing with him, after expressing much contempt for the apostles and fathers, exclaimed, Utinam tu Averroen pati posses, ut videres quanto ille tuis his nugatoribus major sit!" When the revival of letters began to take place, and a number of men of ardent and elegant minds, susceptible to the impressions of beauty of style and dignity of thought, were brought in contact with Greek literature, Plato had naturally greater charms for them. A powerful school of Platonists (not Neoplatonists) was formed in Italy, including some of the principal scholars and men of genius of the time; as Picus of Mirandula in the middle, Marsilius Ficinus at the end, of the fifteenth century. At one time, it appeared as if the ascendency of Aristotle was about to be overturned; but, in physics at least, his authority passed unshaken through this trial. It was not by disputation that Aristotle could be overthrown; and the Platonists were not persons whose doctrines led them to use the only decisive method in such cases, the observation and unfettered interpretation of facts.

The history of their controversies, therefore, does not belong to our design. For like reasons we do not here speak of other authors, who opposed the scholastic philosophy on general theoretical grounds of various kinds. Such examples of insurrection against the dogmatism which we have been reviewHallam, M. A., iii. 536.

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