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shown to be impossible for Jupiter to withdraw much more velocity than he had already communicated; and similar remarks apply, of course, to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

a planet can communicate under any circumstances represents the velocity which, under similar circumstances, the planet can withdraw from a moving body. So that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are severally unable to deprive The application of these considerations a particle which, drawn in by the sun's to Schiaparelli's theory is easily perattraction, passes near to them, of more ceived. In order that a particle attracted than a portion of the velocity which these from outer space may be compelled to planets are respectively able to commu- travel in a closed orbit around the sun, nicate to a body approaching them from its velocity must be diminished. And infinite space. Taking, for example, the this can very readily happen. But for the case of Jupiter, we may regard 40 miles particle to travel in an orbit of a particu per second as a sort of negative fund lar extent or mean distance, its velocity from which Jupiter would have the power where it crosses the distance of the disof drawing, to reduce the velocity of turbing planet must be diminished by a bodies moving from him, if Jupiter were certain amount; and in dealing with the sole attracting influence under which Schiaparelli's theory, it is a cardinal consuch bodies had acquired their velocity; sideration whether the observed orbits of but in the case of bodies which have been periodic comets are such that we can addrawn inwards by the sun's attraction, mit the possibility of their resulting from the fund is reduced, as shown in the note any diminution of velocity which the disbelow, to about 303 miles per second. turbing planet could have produced. Now this might seem ample when we Taking, for instance, the November meremember that the velocity of a body teors, which pass near the orbits of Uracrossing the path of Jupiter under the nus and the earth, and do not approach sun's influence alone would be but 113 any other orbit near enough for any such miles per second. But it is to be ob- effects upon the orbital motions of these served that the estimate only applies to bodies as we are now dealing with. bodies moving all but directly from Jupi- may dismiss the earth from consideration ter, and coming all but into contact with at once, because our planet is far too his surface. The power of Jupiter in small to modify the motions of bodies this respect diminishes rapidly with dis- rushing past her with the velocity, nearly tance from the surface. At a distance 26 miles per second, which the sun comfrom Jupiter's centre equal to four times municates to bodies approaching him his radius, his power is already dimin- from interstellar space, by the time they ished one half, and this distance is far reach the earth's distance from him. within that of even his nearest satellite. Uranus then alone remains. Now the Moreover, it is to be noticed that a body present velocity of the November metewhich moves in such sort that Jupiter ors when crossing the orbit of Uranus exerts his most powerful retardative in- amounts to about 1 1-2 miles per second. fluence, must have moved for some time The velocity of a particle approaching previously in such a way that Jupiter the sun from interstellar space would be exerted nearly his most powerful acceler- nearly six miles per second when at the ative influence.* It may be readily distance of Uranus. It may be seriously questioned whether, under any circumstances whatever, a particle crossing the track of Uranus without encountering the planet could be deprived of 4 1-2

while

2 M

Hence the velocity

= (40)2 nearly.

V = ✔(11'3)2 + (40) = less than 41'6; while = 40; so that a body approaching the sun under his sole influence would have, at Jupiter's distance, a velocity of 113 miles per second; one approaching Jupiter under the combined influence of the Sun and planet would reach Jupiter's surface with a velocity of 416 miles per second; and a body approaching Jupiter under his influence alone would reach his surface with a velocity of 40 miles per second. So that Jupiter helping the sun adds a velocity of 30'3 miles per second as compared with the velocity of 40 miles per second, which he can communicate to a body approaching him from infinity.

It is manifest that a particle in approaching from without must be, in the first instance, accelerated by

We

any planet to which it draws near, no matter what the
direction may be in which the particle arrives.
It may
begin to be retarded, however, before it has reached
the distance from the sun at which the disturbing
planet is travelling. In any discussion of the change
of path as to position, we should need to inquire very
carefully into the manner of approach; but in the above
discussion we are only inquiring into the change of
velocity.

Both Jupiter and Saturn can perturb the November meteors, and thus modify the shape and position of the meteoric orbits; but such changes, though by no means inappreciable, are utterly insignificant compared with those required to change the motion of a body approaching the sun from interstellar space into motion in an orbit like that of the November meteors.

miles per second of its velocity. For suppose, on the other hand, that comets though Uranus can deprive a body di- have crossed the interstellar spaces, comrectly receding from him (and starting ing to us from the domain of another from his surface) of a velocity of about 13 sun, is to remove the difficulty only one miles per second, yet the considerations step. We know that comets pass away above adduced show that only a fraction from the domain of our sun to visit some of this velocity could be abstracted from other sun after an interstellar journey of a body moving past Uranus; and it is tremendous duration; and to suppose certain that if so large a reduction as that comets, whether of hyperbolic or 4 1-2 miles per second could be effected elliptic orbit, came to us originally from at all, it would only be by a singularly the domain of another sun, is merely to close approach of the particle to the sur-suppose that that happened to such face of Uranus.

But setting apart the improbability that a body arising from interstellar space could be in this way compelled to travel in the orbit of the November meteors, the possibility of such a capture would not prove the possibility of the capture of a flight of bodies large enough to form that meteor-system and its accompanying comet. If the whole material of the system and its comet had arrived in a compact body, the material attractions of the parts of that body would be sufficient to keep them together; whereas, in point of fact, the November meteor-system and its comet occupy at present a large range of space, even if the meteors be not scattered all round the orbit (however thinly along portions thereof). If, on the other hand, the material of the body were not in a compact form, the body would be necessarily large, and a portion of it only would be captured by Uranus. Nay, it is not even necessary that this should be conceded. For though we admitted that the whole of a large and tenuous body not kept together by the mutual attraction of its parts or by cohesion, might be captured, it is manifest that different parts would be captured in different ways, and would thenceforth travel on widely different orbits. That a system of bodies already drawn out into an extended column, and in respect of length already resembling the meteor-systems we are acquainted with, could be captured, as Schiaparelli's theory requires, and all sent along one and the same closed orbit, is altogether impossible.

comets millions of years ago which we know to be happening to other comets at this present day, but not by any means to explain the nature of comets or their origin. We know that many comets leaving our system to visit others had not their origin within our system; and we cannot assume as possible or even probable that any comet had its origin within the domain of another sun than ours, unless we assume as possible or probable that some among the comets leaving our own sun had their origin within our sun's domain.

Thus, then, we have been led to the conclusion that whether we adopt, with Schiaparelli and others, the theory that comets with meteoric systems can be drawn into the solar domain, or regard such an event as of very infrequent occurrence, we will find that the origin of comets must be looked for within solar systems; or rather, since we cannot claim to trace back comets any more than planets or suns, to their actual origin, we may say that at an early period of their existence comets belonged to the solar system. The system has had no more occasion, so to speak, to borrow comets from other systems that is, from other suns -than these have had to borrow comets from it and from each other.

We decide, then, that comets may certainly be classified into those which belong to our solar system from the earliest period of their history, those which visit it from without, and pass away to other suns, and an intermediate class consisting of those which having visited it from It is to be noticed also that we gain without have been constrained, by pernothing, as respects the interpretation of turbations affecting them within it, to comets, by adopting Schiaparelli's hy- become attached permanently to its dopothesis. To assume that cometic mat- main. We may note also that as there ter has been wandering about through are comets now belonging to our solar interstellar space, until the sun's attract- system which originally belonged to other ive influence drew such matter towards solar systems, so probably many comets the solar system, is to explain a difficulty originally belonging to our solar system away by advancing another still greater; are now either attending on other suns or moreover, we have not a particle of evi- wandering through the star-depths from dence in support of the supposition. To'sun to sun.

theme of a splendid addition to the “Histoire des Variations des Eglises Protestantes," if the pen could still be held by Bossuet; and for want of a Bossuet, bigotry may accept a Veuillot. But we think that the satire and the jubilation of Catholic controversialists will yet be found as baseless as were the predictions that the disruption of the Scottish Church would injure Presbyterianism. The rupture was really a sign that the days of indifference had passed away, and that Scotland had regained some of the grim carnestness with which the Covenanters had braved the dragoons of Claverhouse. Nay, the disruption has stirred both sections of the Scottish Church with a

It has been from viewing the matter in | and now she is about to be cut asunder by this way, recognizing the almost decisive the discords of her own house. Such an evidence that comets have from earliest ending of such a history might be the times been members of our solar system, that I have been led to inquire into the possibility that some comets may have been expelled from the sun, and that others — those, namely, which seem attached to the orbits of the giant planets may have been expelled from those planets when in their former sun-like condition. The evidence to show that there is an adequate expulsive power in the sun is striking, and we may reasonably infer that the small sums formerly dependent upon him had a similar power. The motions of the members of the comet-families of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, accord far better, too, with this theory than with Schiaparelli's. It is to be noticed, however, in conclu-zeal which, in the easy-going days of sion, that we may also not unreasonably admit the possibility that comets may be, as it were, the shreds and fragments left from the making of our solar system and of others, since the sun and planets in their former nebulous condition and ex-ing disruption of that Church which inpanded forms would have had a power of capturing these wandering shreds which at present they no longer possess.

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Hume, might seem to have vanished forever in favour of a gentlemanly paganism. Hence the disruption was really a blessing in the guise of a calamity. And such, we are convinced, will also be the com

herits the organization, which is still charged with the spirit, and which is glorified by the fame of the Huguenots. It is true that there remains no such future for the Protestantism of France as there is for the Protestantism of Scotland. The French Reformed Church has abandoned all hope of ever becoming a dominant creed, and sometimes it has seemed to be almost dead. A revival of

inert mass of the French people, unless, indeed, it were to produce some teacher of immense genius; but the effect of the Huguenot creed has been so noble, that its new symptoms of life must be as welcome to the politician as they are to the theologian.

IT may seem sad that, after three cen-its energy would not touch the great turies of a glorious history, the Reformed Church of France should be on the eve of disruption. She withstood massacres, of which the slaughter of St. Bartholomew was only the chief; she remained uncrushed even after half a million of her members had been driven into exile by the most desolating persecution recorded The Revolution found the French in the history of France; she survived Protestants suffering from the same lasthe loss of perhaps another half-million, situde as all the other Christian Churches. who were sent to the galleys, killed, or Catholicism had sunk into a decorous converted to Catholicism by the sabres formality, the Protestantism of England of dragoons; she kept alive her Puritan and Scotland was in a like state, and perritual and creed in those churches of the haps the worst sign was that even bigdesert which have added imperishable otry had scarcely the nerve to persecute. chapters to the history of Christian hero- There is always hope of a zeal which is ism; she lived to see her oppressors faithful unto slaying. The descendants driven forth to become a byword and a of the Huguenots could still indeed musshaking of the head unto the nations; ter a strong body, but a long and terrible she lived to acquire freedom, equality of persecution had crushed their spirit, if it rights with Catholicism itself, wealth and had not killed their faith. When the the respect of men; she had reached Revolution gave them freedom, it also what would have seemed a time of threw them into political rather than relimillennial bliss to the hunted Huguenots; 'gious work. Then came their acceptance

of State pay and State shackles. How- | straying from the paths marked out in ever well such an arrangement may an- the Bible. His arguments, his abundant swer elsewhere, we are persuaded that it knowledge of Holy Writ, and above all, crippled the energies of the French Prot- his fervour, made zealous converts. The estants by making them too dependent cold atmosphere of Geneva was dison the minister of the day. It rendered turbed by precisely the same disputes as their church the slave of the State. It those that had agitated the city in the bound them to refrain from attacking the time of Calvin. The clergy were SO other creeds recognized in the constitu- alarmed by the spread of the new doction; and by such a condition a vigilant- trines that, before licensing any young ly intolerant minister can almost silence pastor to preach the gospel, they rethose aggressive minds that often give quired him to promise that he would not life to Churches. The State has tried to discuss the divinity of Christ, original keep the Protestants in a condition of sin, the work of grace in the human sleepy peace. It has prevented the con- heart, or predestination. In the city of vocation of provincial synods, and all the Calvin he was not to teach the doctrines influence of M. Guizot was needed to of Calvin. He was to preach a philosophobtain from M. Thiers authority to con- ical Christianity that could offend nobody. voke the general synod, after a lapse of But so absurd as well as so cowardly a more than two centuries. So effectually, restriction was soon brushed aside by the indeed, did the ministers press down the zeal of the Evangelical clergy, and there official screw, that the Church was a was a schism from the State Church. model of submissiveness for a quarter of Still the pulpits of that Church itself a century after it became the pensioner taught Evangelical doctrines, and one of and the servant of the State. At last it the chief culprits was expelled. Another was tamed. At last it seemed dead. of the rebels, Dr. Merle d'Aubigné has But meanwhile it was beginning to feel won fame in this country by his vivathose reviving influences which produced cious, if not particularly philosophical the disruption in Scotland, which gave history of the Reformation. In time the the Tractarians to England, and which agitation spread to France, and caused stirred the Catholic Church of France an excitement which was very embarrasswith such pulses of life as it had not felting to the ministers of public worship. for a century. Two forces began to shake the ranks of the Reformed Church, the one Evangelical and the other Liberal. The revival of the orthodox party began in Geneva about the commencement of this century. The city of Calvin had become the city of Voltaire, and the mocking spirit of the sceptic had conquered for a time all that had been left of the Reformer's grand austerity. The Protestant Church had become alike so critical and indifferent, that a half-pagan philosophy was taught in the pulpit of Calvin himself. But the town was still a famed school of theology, and one of the students who came to its lecture-rooms was a young Scotchman, Robert Haldane, who has left a beautiful memory in his own land. He brought with him that literal, aggressive, and fervid Christianity which still lingered in the nation of the Covenant, and which had been warmed by the impassioned preaching of Whitefield, although it had not allowed him to blunt the hard edges of its Calvinism. Robert Haldane found the Christianity of Geneva so unlike the gospel of his own country, and so cold, that he felt it needful to be a teacher instead of a learner. He told his fellow-students that they were

Evangelical doctrines began to be taught with heat from the pulpits which had been content with moral essays. Societies were formed for the spread of the Scriptures and of religious books. An alliance was made with the great English societies which exist for the same purpose. M. Vinet and M. Adolphe Monod flung their eloquence into the struggle. There have been lulls in the revival, but it has, nevertheless, made a great change. Forty years ago, M. Samuel Vincent, a leader of the Liberal clergy, said that the Church was too indifferent to be troubled by the restraints of the State; but he predicted that she would grow restive so soon as she should regain her lost earnestness. He predicted also that the dominant party would then turn upon the weaker, and try to cast it out. His prophecies are now coming to pass. Forty years ago the Evangelicals were content to let the Liberals alone, because they cared too little for their own creed to press it upon others; but new zeal has brought a more aggressive spirit.

The Liberals, on the other hand, have drawn their theology mostly from Germany, through the faculties of Strasburg and Montauban. About the very time

that Robert Haldane was holding revival Coquerel. Many of them are heterodox meetings in Geneva, and teaching the only in a vague way, and their LiberalEvangelical doctrines of Scotland, M. ism is an impatience of restraint, rather Gasc, a professor of theology, startled than a distinctly formulated set of docthe Church by attacking the doctrine of trines. Nor could the creed even of the Trinity. He was silenced for the many advanced Liberals be correctly moment, but equally rationalistic doc- described as Unitarianism, unless the trines were soon heard on every side, word be freed from its English associaand in more recent days they have been tions. English Unitarianism is usually powerfully taught by a large band of the- precise and clear, both in its denials and ologians. The more freedom was given its affirmations. It sometimes makes as to the rationalists, because the great much of dogma as the most dogmatic of influence of M. Samuel Vincent was the Churches, and its theological temper directed against the subscription of pre- is not unfrequently the same as theirs. cise creeds. Although he himself was But the Liberalism of France is much comparatively orthodox, he maintained more mystical. It will speak about an that the Church could be held together Incarnation, a Resurrection, and an Asby a general profession of faith in Christ. cension, after it has wrapped these docHe set forth that opinion with great trines in a haze of poetry. It will make ability, in a highly interesting book, much of them as symbols of divine truth, which was published more than forty if not as dogmatic statements of its years ago. Republished in 1860, it was precise character. then enriched by a preface by M. Prévost- But the Evangelical temper is so alien Paradol, which is one of the most to the spirit of Liberalism, that they canthoughtful of his writings, although it is not dwell together when both are heated also one of the least known. He speaks, by zeal, when both are aggressive, and of course, with the blandness of a philos- when orthodoxy is permitted to use its opher who holds aloof from all the anathemas. M. Samuel Vincent was conChurches; but he sees so clearly the fronted by a worthy antagonist, M. Danimmense part which religion plays in iel Encontre. A Huguenot of the old, human life that he disdains to treat it with dogmatic breed, a man of great ability, Parisian flippancy, and indeed he dis- and a profound scholar, he battled, not plays profound reverence. Paradol does for freedom, but for the truth, in the spirit not discuss the question whether it is of his fathers. As a professor, a preachpossible to bind a Church together by so er, and a writer, he did much to generate loose a tie as that of a general expres- the present determination that the Protsion of faith in Christ, but he plainly estant Church shall free itself from the indicates his suspicion that such a de-mystical deism of the Liberals. In 1843, sign must be hopeless in the present that very question came before a general temper of mankind. A more eloquent assembly of the Protestant divines. The man than either Vincent or Paradol, M. Evangelicals proposed to stop the preachAthanase Coquerel, fils, has persistently ing of heresy by declaring that the Church taught, however, that no other future re- held the doctrines of the Confession of mains for Protestantism than a future in Faith which was drawn up at Rochelle which there shall be union of the spirit two centuries before, but the proposition rather than identity of belief. In his was not carried. An eminent pastor, brilliant book, Des Premières Trans- M. Frédéric Monod, was so incensed by formations Historiques du Christianisme, such a laxity of temper that he seceded he says that when Liberal Protestants are from the Church. His more famous asked to point out the limit which sepa- brother, Adolphe, one of its most revered rates those who are Christians from those names, remained, although his creed was who are not, each must answer by the also Evangelical. He remained because light of his own conscience, but that for he held that the number of orthodox him, this confession of faith is sufficient, teachers had greatly increased, because -"Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, he thought the faith of the Church suband thou shalt be saved." Such a dec-stantially sound, and perhaps because he laration would clearly leave room in the believed that a definite confession of Protestant Church even for the attenu-faith would soon be formulated. ated theism of Mr. Matthew Arnold. All Guizot, to whom we are indebted for some the Liberals, however, are not so heter- of these details, thought the decision odox as to need the full extent of the wise, and he himself lived long enough to space marked out by M. Vincent and M. 'be the leader of a victorious orthodox

M.

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