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or the worse, can only be decided by the respective uses to which it was applied. Old English houses, covered with rough slates or tiles, had steep roofs, in the form of the letter A, terminating in an acute angle,-but the modern Italian houses had flat roofs, or such as terminated in a very obtuse angle, imitated in England and covered with fine slate. The parapet or ballustrade was added to hide what was deemed incongruous in the Grecian or Roman styles; and for the same reason, even the chimnies were omitted in the

designs of Inigo Jones, &c. although houses in England could not exist without them, and indeed in the old English houses the chimnies were often richly decorated, and formed a great feature in the character of the building. In the modern English roofs only two considerations are attended to, 1st. to cover the walls, and preserve them from the rain, and 2dly, to be as flat and invisible as may be consistent with the first consideration; and of course (except in very wide roofs) little advantage can be taken of them for garrets. On the contrary, the old English roof was better calculated to keep out the wet, being steeper, and therefore better adapted to carry off the water; it had less tendency to push out the walls, because it might almost stand without any beam to counteract the lateral pressure; and it gave it more space for servants' rooms immediately near the family apartmentsto all which there was no other objection than that the roof was more visi

ble yet when it was ornamented by projecting dormer windows, and enriched with gables and lofty chimnies, and sometimes by towers and turrets, it became a very picturesque object.

Another remarkable circumstance in the construction of old timber houses is, that the upper stories generally projected over those below them. It is evident that the reason for this overhanging was originally to gain space, in streets where land was valuable, and new erections discouraged. As to the construction of the projections, they were sometimes formed by beams and joists only, sometimes accompanied by brackets; but great attention seems to have been given to the supports of the corners, which were often very richly carved, and

where these were omitted, the cross brace of timber is generally found to strengthen the corner, and prevent any settlement in the roof.

In many ancient houses the windows on the ground-floor were SO high that a person could not see out of them when sitting. This is exemplified by the exceptions mentioned in Chaucer's Miller's Tale, where it is twice observed that the window "stante full lowe.' ""

"He cometh to the carpenteres hous, And stil he stante under the shot window, Unto his brest it raught, it was so low."

And again,

"So mote I thrive, I shal at cockes crow
Ful privily go knocke at his windowe
That stant full lowe upon his boures wall."
Edition 1598.

But when the ground story of the house was used as a shop it was usually disposed in unglazed windows, at most times open to the air, and closed, when necessary, by flat shutters. In a china shop at Ipswich, I noticed that the upper shutter was hung by gurnut hinges, and when opened was fastened on the ceiling by hooks. The lower shutter originally folded down, and formed a flap or table to hold the goods when exposed for sale. This custom of open shops prevailed so late as the middle of the last century; but they are now seldom retained, except in butchers' shops, or warehouses for old iron, &c.

The shop front of the house before us has been restored by comparison with the ancient house at Lynn, which we before mentioned, and which will form our next example.

MR. URBAN,

J. A. R.

MR. LODGE, in his interesting Memoirs of the Cæsar Family, mentions (pp. 60, 61,) that Sir Henry Cæsar died of the small-pox, and that he made a nuncupative will, in the presence of John Lightfoot, D.D. and others. It is surprising that Mr. Lodge, who has consulted so many sources of information concerning Hertfordshire, never thought of examining the Life of Dr. Lightfoot, which would have supplied a valuable addition to one of the shortest biographical articles in his book.

Dr. Lightfoot (who was the celebrated Orientalist,) had been presented to the rectory of Great Munden in Hertfordshire, during the civil war, in consequence of the recommendation of the Assembly of Divines. His title, however, required confirmation at the Restoration, as the appointment belonged to the Crown. Of this he was not aware, and it led to important consequences, which are thus described by his original biographer, Dr. Bright.

"Soon after the happy Restoration of his Majesty, a fellow of a college in Cambridge procured a grant of our author's living. Of this he was soon advertised by his neighbour and worthy friend, Sir Henry Cæsar; upon which, by the favour of the late Archbishop Sheldon, our author was confirmed in his rectory. This great favour of the Archbishop, our author gratefully acknowledgeth in two epistles dedicatory to him, prefixed to his 'Hora Hebraicæ upon St. Mark and St. Luke. And he would often mention the great favour he received from that worthy and very excellent person Sir Henry Cæsar, whose neighbourhood and encouragement was one of the greatest comforts of our author's life." (Life, prefixed to the folio edition of his Works, p. v. vol. 1.)

In the dedication, Lightfoot does not mention the name of Sir Henry. The word Cæsar indeed occurs in that of St. Mark, but metonymically for Charles II. His gratitude, however, was substantially shewn, though, as words are apt to outlive actions, when once on record, it is a matter of regret, that he did not distinctly mention his friend in some one of his publications.

"He was also endeared to two personages of Hertfordshire, of great honour and integrity, viz. Sir Tho. Brograve, baronet, and Sir Henry Cæsar, knight. His friendship to Sir Henry Cæsar appeared in the several visits he gave him in his sickness, the small-pox, which, I think, was mortal to him. Though he was very fearful for his own family, yet his singular love and respect to Sir Henry made him not to prefer that consideration to his service in such a time, whose early death he very much lamented." (Ibid. pp. xxviii, xxix.)*

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Anything in special about his friendship with Sir Henry Cæsar, or Sir Thomas Brograve, I cannot recount, but only in general, that they were very intimate friends. To the former, in his sickness, which was the small-pox, he gave several visits, though very fearful for his own family; but his singular love and respect prefer that consideration to his service to to Sir Henry, constrained him not to

so dear a friend in such a time, whose death he very much lamented."EMO

This letter is printed in the last edition of Lightfoot, (Pitman's) vol. i. p. 429. There is a letter of Strype's to Dr. (afterwards Bishop) Kidder, in vol. xiii. p. 482, which mentions the circumstance about the living, adding, "it cost him some money to that fellow by way of composition; under a hundred pounds."que

These particulars would have furnished an important addition to Mr. Lodge's work, and should another edition ever be called for, would justly be included in it. I may also remark, that Sir Thomas Mansel, mentioned hold to Queen Anne, and the first at p. 71, was comptroller of the house

Lord Mansel.

Yours, &c.

MR. URBAN,

CYDWELI.

THE following assertion, which is taken from a work of a French physician, is submitted to your readers, in order to learn whether it is correct or not.

"Dans aucune langage il n'y a de terme pour exprimer l'action par laquelle l'homme met fin à ses jours, et le mot suicide, qui manquait pour désigner une action devenue malheureusement trop

fréquente, fut creé dans le dernier siècle par le fameux Desfontaines." (Chaponnier, La Physiologie des Gens du Monde, 1829, p. 73.)

The fact, if correctly stated, is curious, as the deplorable practice was so common among ancient nations. Ainsworth, indeed, gives suicidium in the English-Latin part of his Diction ary, but marks the term as bad, or only used by writers of an inferior Mr. Duckfield of Aspeden, Light- class," without saying of what date

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those writers are. The quotation he has given from Cicero, “Junius sibi

* This portion was furnished by Strype. ipse necem conscivit," shews that the

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were obliged to use a periphrasis. The word suicidium does not occur in Calepin (ed. Lugduni, 1581.) Whether Desfontaines really invented the term suicide, I cannot say, and wish to inquire; but it is curious that Johnson gives no earlier authorities for it in English, than Savage, Richardson, and Young, who all were that writer's contemporaries. He published Un Dictionnaire nèologique des beaux esprits du temps, 1726, of which M. Goube (Hist. de Normandie, vol. iii. p. 81) says, "Ce Dictionnaire néologique est une liste alphabétique de mots nouveaux, d'expressions extraordinaires, de phrases insolites, pris dans les ouvrages modernes les plus célèbres, publiés depuis quelques temps." Possibly the word may occur in this work, but not having it at hand, I only offer the supposition for others to verify or amend.

Our own Shakespeare, however, employed a term to express the act, a century earlier than Desfontaines, as appears from the celebrated passage in Hamlet:

66 Or that the Everlasting had not fixed His canon 'gainst self-slaughter." On looking into Richards's English and Welsh Dictionary, (Carmarthen, 1798) I perceive that a compound expression is also used in Welsh. The word is hunan-laddiad, or hunan-leiddiad, both of which are given. Mr. Owen (Dr. Owen Pughe) gives it as hunanladd. This melancholy subject, Mr. Urban, is not one of mere philology, nor can I touch on it, without being reminded of Cowper's words,

"Beware of desperate steps." Ferguson, in his History of the Roman Republic, seems to think that this practice hastened the downfall of the State. Speaking of Cæsar's last campaign in Spain, he observes,

"Many of the Senators indeed perceived the impending ruin, and were prevailed upon to make some efforts for the preservation of the State, but on most Occasions too hastily despaired of the cause. It was not thought honourable or safe for a citizen to survive his freedom. Upon this principle, the friends of the Republic, in considerable numbers, while they escaped from their enemies, perished by their own hands... Thus the vic

tories of Cæsar were completed even by his enemies; and while he made a fresh step to dominion at every encounter, they who opposed him went headlong, and abandoned their country to its ruin." (c. xxix.)

2. In commenting on the confusion of language, with respect to the terms abdication and expulsion, your Cork Correspondent says, "as well might assassination be construed into suicide;" and I will add, as well might suicide be construed into assassination, (which is worse than the other, on account of the consequences,) as in the case of the Calas family. The case of Lord Essex (1683) is an historical problem, as is also that of Sir Edmundberry Godfrey, and both, from their mysteriousness, afford ample room for the vehemence of partyfeeling. Another mysterious case is that of Hunne (1514), who was found hanging in the Lollards' Tower, and for whose death the jury brought in a verdict of wilful murder. (See Short's Church History, chap. 4.) However, on many such questions it is difficult to pronounce, and therefore charity has a right to give the casting voice.

The mysterious case of Pichegru (as Wright) will readily occur to your well as that of the unfortunate Captain

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readers. M. Millon, the continuator of Millot's Histoire Moderne, says positively, Pichegru fut étranglé dans sa prison. Un circonstance a prouvé son assassinat, qui prevint des révélations qu'il aurait pu faire les fixé, afin de faire l'inspection du cadavre juges furent convoqués pour un jour et ouïr le rapport des chirurgiens; mais ce jour-là, le crime n'étant pas encore consommé, le cadavre ne se trouva pas au lieu designé. Surpris de ne rien voir, les juges furent congediés, sous un prétexte, et ajournés au lendemain." (iv. 340.) The case of the late Prince de Condé (the last of his line), who was found hanging, is more recent. The suspicion which was attached to Madame de Feucheres did not amount to proof; but one of the Cancans (a political satire published at Rennes for the benefit of Bérard, the proprietor of the Parisian ones), alluded to the circumstance in this sarcastic line,

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Not only are suicide and assassination confounded, but the latter imputation has often been advanced without any just ground. How frequently do we read in history, that a person died, not without suspicion of poison," till the hacknied charge only serves to prove the general credulity. In our own century, the sudden death of the last Viceroy of Mexico (O'Donoju) gave occasion to such a suspicion, for no reason (I believe) but that it took place immediately after he had concluded a convention with Iturbide. Grief, at having compromised the claims of the Spanish crown, may have hastened his end, or it may have been purely referible to natural causes. Toward the close of the last century, the ex-Jesuits were accused of poisoning Pope Clement XIV. (Gangnelli), for having suppressed their order. I doubt, however, whether there is any better ground for the accusation, than the words he is said to have uttered,-"I am dying, and I know why,"-words which do A not necessarily imply poison. person might say as much, if he thought he had neglected his health, or if he believed that Providence was "taking him from the evil to come.' With out ransacking the various cases, which are numerous enough to form an index of names, I would allude to that of Jeanne d'Albert, Queen of Navarre, not to make it the ground-work of any charge, but to shew what is rather curious, that two writers on different sides in our own times have changed places in speaking of her sudden death. Thus, Mr. D. D. Scott, author of "Notices of the Reformation in the South-west provinces of France," candidly says, after mentioning the opinion of her having been poisoned, (1572), "the physical appearances after death do not bear out the assertion: the procés-verbal on the opening of the queen's body, states that an abscess was discovered on the left side, which accounted for her decease." (p. 111.) While the writers in the Dictionnaire Historique, who do not affect Protestantism, express them. selves differently :- -"On crut qu'elle avoit été empoisonnée avec une paire de gants parfumés que lui avoit vendus un Italien." And this without offering any objection to the supposition.

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Millot has treated the subject very concisely, and very fairly. Cependant une mort prématurée enlève la reine de Navarre. Le bruit se répand, sans aucune preuve, qu'elle a été empoisonnée." (Hist. de France, ii. 168.) That our dramatic poet Marlowe, who might almost be called a contemporary, should make use of the popular rumour in his "Massacre of Paris," was natural enough; for a presumed murder offers a far more striking incident than a natural death.*

3. I would make use of this opportunity, to remark, that the alleged violent death of Don Carlos, the son of Philip II. which charge Llorente has done so much to remove, was early believed among ultra-Romanists, who would else have been tender of that sovereign's character. Louis d'Orleans, a French advocate, published in 1588 his "o "Reponse des Vrais Catholiques à l'avertissement des Catholiques Anglois," in which (p. 460) he says, that Philip's elder son and presumptive heir was put to death for his heresy, 66 an assertion which reveals to us what the papal advocates considered at the time to be the real cause of the death of Don Carlos," observes Mr. Turner, Hist. of Elizabeth, vol. ii. p. 373.

It is singular, that La Martinière, in his revised edition of Pufendorff'st Universal History, (vol. i. p. 166, 1743) has repeated the charge, though he has shewn himself by no means indifferent to the credit of Romanism. "En 1568 le Roi fit mourir son fils D. Carlos, à cause, comme on disoit, qu'il avoit attenté sur sa vie." The history of Spain, it should be observed, is the editor's, for he says in the preface, "J'ai refondu l'article sur l'Espagne." The statement he has made (or hazarded) reads strangely, when compared with the editor's designation in the title-page, "Premier Géographe de sa Majesté Catholique." Should this passage be found in the earlier editions, still it is adopted by La Martinière, who has taken that chapter

* Marlowe appears to have been fond of recent subjects. His "Jew of Malta" is founded on the siege of that island by the Turks, but history is not adhered to.

†This name is generally, but erroneously, printed Pufendorf.

upon himself, and in other places has not hesitated to expunge remarks that he disliked.

It is also singular, that the editor of the Dictionnaire Historique, who had the advantage of Llorente's researches, has retained the romantic story in all its points, even including the intervention of the Inquisition. This is the more surprising, as that work is often characterised by investigation, on a scale that is fully commensurate with its limits.

In thus considering how many false

accusations have been brought concerning deaths, I gladly transcribe a remark of Fuller's, written in that beautiful style in which he so much excelled, when he did not sacrifice it to paranomasia and antithesis :"But O the necessity of the general day of judgment! wherein all men's actions shall be expounded according to their intentions, which here are interpretable according to other men's inclinations." (Church History of Britain, book xi, Section 2. par. 44.) Yours, &c. CYDWELI.

AN INQUIRY INTO THE TRUE HISTORY OF KING ARTHUR.
SECTION 1. THE ERA OF KING ARTHUR.

"WHEN DID ARTHUR FLOURISH?" is a question to which a satisfactory answer is given by Nennius, the oldest, and nearly the only historian, from whom we derive any authentic information respecting this remarkable character. The career of Arthur commenced when that of Hengist closed, ("Mortuo Hengisto. tunc Arthur pugnabat," Nennius, S. 56), that is about A.D. 488. The correctness of this date has been disputed on the ground, that at that period there was no Saxon foe against whom he could carry his arms and signalise his courage. Two only of the kingdoms which ultimately formed the AngloSaxon Heptarchy had then been established, Kent, over which Hengist had presided with more or less extended bounds for forty years; and Sussex, which owed its foundation to Ella, A.D. 477. These petty states, comprising little more territory than the counties which yet retain their names, were contented with the limits obtained for them by their founders, repudiating the idea of further conquests. In neither of these therefore are we to look for the opponents of Arthur.

The kingdom next in succession was that of Wessex. The first invasion of its founder Cerdic, was A.D. 495, but it is doubtful whether this attack was directed against the coast of Wessex, or the Eastern shores of the island, and it is not until A.D. 501, that we have distinct evidence of the movements of a Saxon force in Wessex. (See Turner's Anglo-Saxon GENT. MAG. VOL. XVII.

History, B. 111. C. 2). In Cerdic the general voice has proclaimed a competitor worthy of Arthur, the æra of whose glory has been accordingly postponed until A.D. 505, the date assigned by Archbishop Usher for the commencement of his reign. We learn, however, from other sources, that Cerdic was eminently successful, and that, although the Britons maintained the contest with determined valour and alternate success, the assailants had ultimately the advantage. Had we even been destitute of this testimony from Gildas and Bede, we must have rejected as incredible the assumption, that the establishment of the most powerful kingdom of the Heptarchy was the result of a series of defeats. The cogency of this consideration has not escaped the clear perception of the historian of the Anglo-Saxons, but he has not met the difficulty with his usual felicity. He suggests that some of the victories recounted by Nennius, may have occurred in struggles with the neighbouring British states. This however is contrary to the sole authority on which we rely for evidence that the battles ever took place at all, and we might as fairly assume that some of these terminated in defeat, as that all were not conflicts between the Britons and the Saxons. I am far from contending that Arthur and Cerdic never met; on the contrary, I believe that some of the later victories of the British hero, unquestionably his last signal triumph at Bath, were achieved in struggles with the West Saxon

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