CHAP. V.

Present State, political and moral.....Religion......Government.... Laws..... Army.....Navy.....Revenues.....Commerce.....Manufactures..... Population Political importance..... Language.....Literature.....Polite Arts.....Education...... Manners and Customs.....National Character.

Religion.-THE mythology of the Hindoos has fair preten sions to great antiquity; but their modern religion is supposed to vary much from the ancient system, which seems to have been originally that of Boodha, yet retained by the Birmans and the neighbouring nations. The present system seems to have been introduced by the artful Bramins in order to increase their own power and influence. Among many other intelligent inquirers, Sir W. Jones is decidedly of this opinion, and cautions us against confounding the ancient Brachmans with the modern Bramins. It is well known that in the circle of human affairs contests have frequently risen between the spiritual and temporal powers. This has particularly been the case in all half civilized countries. In China and Japan the regal has obtained the ascendency over the ecclesiastical power, While in Hindostan and Thibet the latter has acquired the su periority. An artful priesthood, by a refined policy, asserted the divine institution of the several casts, and very naturally pronounced their own to be supreme, and possessed of innate and hereditary sanctity. The different casts are supposed to originate from Brama, the immediate agent of creation under the supreme Disposer. These casts are chiefly four, the Bramins, who are employed in the offices of religion; the Cheteree, or military cast, engaged in the affairs of war and government; the Bice, whose province it is to provide the necessaries of life by agriculture and trade; and the Sooder, or inferior class, destined to labour and servitude. The religious tenets of the Hindoos are so artfully and closely interwoven, with the whole social system and the ordinary offices of life, that, not

GOVERNMENT........LAWS.... ARMY, NAVY, &c.

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withstanding the revolutions of their country, they remain, and probably will for ever remain, like the Jews, a distinct people. Amidst all the absurdities, however, that compose the intricate maze of Hindoo mythology, the whole fabric appears to rest on that universal basis of ancient polytheism, the belief of one supreme Creator exalted above all human adoration, and a number of inferior agents governing the world in subordination to his will.

Government.]-It would be an endless task to particularize the different systems of government in India. The general Hindoo constitution appears to be thus constructed the sovereignty being left to the military cast, the monarch is considered as proprietor of all the lands, except those belonging to the priesthood: the Rayots hold their possessions by a perpetual lease, at a fixed rate, which, as in China, can only be considered as a land tax: the Zemindars are collectors of these annual land rents.

Laws.—The laws of the Hindoos, like those of the Mahomedans, are intimately connected with their religion; but the laws of the Veda are more complex than those of the Koran.

Army, navy, and revenue.]—Of the army, navy, and revenue of the different states into which India is divided, nothing can be said with any degree of precision. The military establishment of Bengal, &c. is always respectable, but varies according to circumstances, and a good navy might be constructed.* The revenues of Aurengzebe's empire, as already observed, are stated by M. Rennell, on the authority of a precise calculation, at 32,000,000l. sterling, the largest, perhaps, that ever any monarch enjoyed, being equivalent at least to 130,000,000. at this day in England. The revenue of the British provinces in India may, at this time, probably amount to 5,000,000%. and the expenses to 2,500,000/†

It is to be observed, that on account of some religious prejudices the Hindoo nations have never had any navy.

†The revenue of the British provinces have been computed at four million two hundred and ten thousand pounds sterling, and the public expenditure at two million five hundred and forty thousand pounds sterling. Pennant, vol. 2. p. 326, but it may be presumed that they have since increased.:

Commerce. The commerce of this celebrated country is a copious subject, which has exercised many pens, and interested many nations from time immemorial. A passion for Indian manufactures and products has actuated the people of every age in Western Asia and the civilized countries of Europe. It is probable that the Arabians were the first people that engaged in this traffic, and that from them it was communicated to the Egyptians and Tyrians. The Arabians seem to have been the first carriers, as the early Egyptians, like the Persians, had an aversion to the sea; but in the reign of Pharaoh Necho the Egyptians began to pay great attention to maritime affairs, and undoubtedly made voyages to India. It is extremely probable, however, that there was from time immemorial an intercourse between Egypt and India; and the similarity of customs in many instances seems to establish the fact. This coincidence of customs and institutions, however, seems to point out a more immediate communication than could be maintained through the medium of the Arabians, and shews that either the Egyptians made voyages to India or the Hindoos visited Egypt.† That Solomon's lucrative commerce extended to India is highly probable, as his kingdom bordered both on the Red Sea and the Euphrates, which opened to him the two great channels of communication with the East. M. Rennell observes, that M. Volney's opinion respecting the object, which Solomon had in view, in taking possession of Palmyra, namely, to use it as an emporium of Oriental commerce by the way of the Persian Gulph, is both ingenious and probable. It is certain, however, that this trade afterwards raised Palmyra, in aftertimes, to a splendid and opulent city, the capital of a powerful kingdom. There is scarcely any doubt that the Tyrians had a share in this lucrative trade, as M. Renneil observes, although in another place he advances an opposite opinion. This opinion is founded on the omission of many

Rennell's Introd. p. 33.

† Might not this consideration give rise to a probable opinion that the casts, or tribes, together with a great part of the religious system of the Hindoos, were borrowed from Egypt, and, perhaps, in the time of the latter Pharaohs ?

Compare Rennell's Mem. Introd. p. 33, with Geograph. Herodotus, p. 248 and 249.

names or description of Indian commodities in the catalogue of the different kinds of merchandise, which made up the commerce of Tyre. But as the spices of Arabia are mentioned, it is proper to remark, that, among the ancients, the products of India were often ascribed to Arabia, the mart being mista ken for the place of production, and, according to Niebuhr's account, few spices are produced in Arabia.† But whatever were the channels of commerce between the western world and India, at an earlier period, it is certain that after Alexandria became the royal seat of the Ptolemies, it also became the emporium of Indian trade, and such it continued until the Saracen conquest. In the time of Pliny, 120 ships sailed annually from the Red Sea to the coasts of Malabar, or to the island of Ceylon; and this trade was carried to so great an extent as to cause an annual loss to Rome of 800,000l. sterling, which was the prime cost of the merchandise. But if this commerce was disadvantageous to the state, it was highly lucrative to the merchants, as Indian commodities sold at Rome for ten times their original price. And Tiberius complained, in the Roman Senate, that the wealth of the state was expended in female ornaments.§ India, indeed, has ever been a gulf which absorbed the gold and silver of the western world. The Indian commerce, however, has enriched every nation that has shared in any considerable degree in its profits. After Alexandria fell into the hands of the Caliphs, a new channel of intercourse was opened between Constantinople and India, by the way of the Euxine and Caspian Seas and the river Oxus, which pervades the country of Great Bucharia. The Oriental trade, however, reverted to its ancient channel of Alexandria, and enriched Venice and Genoa until the Portugueze deprived them of that grand source of wealth by the discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope. The Portugueze for a short time enjoyed this profitable monopoly, which they were soon obliged to share with other Eu

Ezekiel, chap 27.

† Niebuhr, p. 126. Pliny's Hist. Nat. lib. 12. cap. 18.

Tacit. Annal. vol. 3. p. 52.

|| And. Hist. Com. vol 1. p. 542. Pliny ubi supra, this remark is also applicable to China. And. Hist. Com. vol. 1. p. 154.

ropean nations.* Among these the Dutch took the lead, and were so successful as to expel the Portugueze from most of their forts and factories, and the greatest part of their trade. The French and English made rapid strides to rival the Dutch in this lucrative vein of commerce. From the year 1726 to 1754 the Oriental trade of France was very considerable, and about the latter period had attained to its greatest height:† at present it is almost annihilated. Great Britain is now predo minant in Indian commerce, as well as in Indian politics. Oba jections have been made by theorists against the Oriental trade, on the pretence that India and China drain the wealth of Europe. But as a traffic will ever be carried on with these countries, so long as navigation and commerce exist, it is evidently more beneficial to Great Britain to purchase the Oriental commodities at the first than the second hand, and to supply other nations, than to receive supplies from their trade.‡ The riches acquired by the Company and their servants centre chiefly in England, and experience, which in business surpasses all theory, has already proved the Indian commerce to be a source of opulence and naval strength.

Manufactures.The Indian manufactures have been celebrated from the times of remote antiquity, particularly their muslins and other fabrics of cotton, which constitute a considerable part of the exports from that country. In all their trades few tools are used, and those of the simplest kind, but the delicate touch of their fingers supplies this defect. The hand of an Indian cook wench, says Mr. Orme, is more delicate than that of an European beauty, and the skin of a porter is finer than that of a professed petit maitre.S

Population.The population of this extensive region is difficult to calculate. General estimation supposes it to amount to about 60,000,000. Sir W. Jones computes the Hindoo in

• For the vast trade of the Portugueze to India, about the year 1611, see Anderson's Hist. of Com. vol. 2. p. 245.

† And. Hist. Com. vol. 3. p. 300, &c.

See curious and interesting disquisitions on this subject in And. Hist. of Com. particularly in vol. 2 p. 200 and 283.

§ General Idea of the Government and People of Hindostan, ch. 7.

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