donia and Thessaly, and at the opening of the next campaign marched into Bæotia. From thence he proceeded into Attica, and the Athenians retiring as before to their ships, he again destroyed Athens, which the citizens had begun to rebuild. The Greeks being now commanded by Pausanias king of Sparta, and Aristides the Athenian general, the bloody battle of Platæa decided the event of the war. The Persian army consisted, according to Herodotus, of 350,000 men; but Diodorus Siculus makes it amount to 500,000. Among these were the Thebans, and the troops of some other Greek states, who had formed an alliance with the Persians. The combined Athenian and Spartan army did not amount to 110,000. The affair, however, was decisive ;* Mardonius, general of the Persians, was killed, and almost their whole army was cut off. The division of Artabanus, consisting of 40,000 men, having retreated to Byzantium, and crossed over the Bosphorus into Asia, was all that escaped of that numerous host, which had menaced Greece with subjugation. The Greeks then plundered the Persian camp, where they found a vast booty in gold and silver plate, costly beds, and other rich furniture, which shewed the luxury of the Persian armies. On the same day on which the decisive battle of Platea was fought, the Grecian fleet gained the naval victory of Mycale, which was scarcely less important. Such was the final issue of the greatest military expedition recorded in history. A reasonable presumption arises, that the vanity of the Greeks might augment the numerical calculations, amplify their own victories, and exaggerate the loss of their enemies; but consequences are the best criterion of facts, and it is certain that the battle of Platea delivered the Greeks for ever from the invasions of the Persians, who never afterwards appeared on the European side of the Hellespont.

This tremendous invasion of Greece took place in the year 480 before the Christian era,† and in the ensuing campaign the Persians were expelled. The Greeks now in their turn not only recovered the islands which Darius Hystaspes had con

• For an account of the battle of Platxa, see Herodot. lib. 9. and Plutarch in Pausan.

† Anderson's Royal Geneal. Tab. 23.

quered, but insulted the costs of Asia. Xerxes, who during this time had remained at Sardis, not thinking himself safe so near a victorious enemy, retired with precipitation into Persia, leaving orders to destroy all the Greek temples in Asia. Whether he was prompted to this measure by the losses which he had sustained, or by his zeal for the religion of Zoroaster and the instigations of the Magi, the chief of whom attended him in this expedition, is difficult to ascertain. But, whatever was the motive, the order was so strictly executed that not one of the temples was left standing, except that of Diana, at Ephesus.

Discouraged by a series of heavy losses and disgraceful defeats, Xerxes now laid aside all thoughts of military achievements, and addicted himself wholly to luxury and indolence. His court was a scene of debauchery, incest, and cruelty, in which his wife Hamestris bore a principal part. A detail of crimes disgraceful to human nature and shocking to human feelings, besides its incompatibility with the plan of this work, would afford little pleasure to the reader. Herodotus has drawn a picture sufficiently disgusting. In exhibiting a general view of the affairs of nations, it suffices to observe that Xerxes having by his vices rendered himself odious, was assassinated in his palace by Artobanus, captain of his guards, A. A. C. 456, and was succeeded by his youngest son Artaxerxes Longimanus, so called because his right hand was longer than his left. Some time however elapsed before Artaxerxes was firmly established on the throne. He had murdered his brother Darius, whom Artabanus had accused of the assassination of Xerxes; but his eldest brother Hystaspes, who was then in Bactria, legally claimed the succession. Artabanus also, who had seven sons of great abilities, and raised to the highest dignities, with a great number of partizans, had formed the design of placing himself on the throne, but was put to death by Artaxerxes. It was some time, however, before his party was crushed. Hystaspes at the same time asserting his in to the crown Bactria declared in his favour. A war

ensued between the two brothers, which terminating in favour

* Univ. Hist. vol. 5. ch. 11. and auct. cit.

of Artaxerxes, that prince remained in peaceable possession of the empire. The revolt of Egypt in the fifth year of his reign is related in the historical view of that country.* The war between Greece and Persia still continued, and on the part of the Athenians was carried on with great abilities and success, by the courage and abilities of Cimon their general, who defeated the Persians in several engagements by land and by sea. A peace was at last concluded between the two nations, after a war of fifty-one years, in which innumerable moltitudes, both of Greeks and Persians, had perished. One of the conditions of this peace was the re-stablishment of the freedom of the Greek cities in Asia.

The Peloponnesian war breaking out between the Athenians and Lacedemonians, in the thirty-fourth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, both parties solicited his sistance. But the Persian monarch hesitating to engage in the quarrel, the negotiations continued until they were broken off by his death,‡ which happened in the forty-first year of his reign. This prince is supposed by Prideaux to have been the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther, and in this opinion he is supported by the authority of Josephus.§ Scaliger, on the contrary, considers Xerxes as the husband of || Esther. But the learned Archbishop Usher imagines the Ahasuerus, whose favours to the Jews are there recorded, to have been no other than Darius Hystaspes.¶ It would be a mark of presumption to pretend to determine a point controverted by writers of such erudition; but the opinion of Prideaux seems to be supported by the best authorities, and to be liable to the fewest objections.

Artaxerxes Longimanus was succeeded A. A. C. 424, by his son Xerxes II. who after a reign of forty-five days, was murdered in his bed-chamber by his brother Sogdianus. The fratricide having seated himself on the throne, soon rendered himself odious by his cruel and tyrannical proceedings. Ochus, his brother, revolted against him, being joined by most of the nobility and governors of provinces. The tyrant being abanPlutarch in Cinmone.

See historical des. Egypt.

Thucydide, lib. 4. Eng. Trans.

§ Prideaux connect book 4-Joseph. Antiq Jud, lib. 11. cap. 6.

Scaliger de emendat. lib. 6.

Usher, ad. A. M. 3485.

doned by his subjects, yielded himself up to his brother, who having promised him that he should not die by the sword, by poison, or famine, caused him to be smothered among ashes.* Ochus being now placed on the throne, took the name of Darius, and is by historians commonly called Nothus, or the Bastard. The greatest part of his reign was harassed by revolts in different provinces; that of Egypt is mentioned in its proper place. This prince died A. A. C. 404, after a reign of nineteen years, and was succeeded by Arsaces, his eldest son, who, on his accession to the throne, took the name of Artaxerxes, and by the Greeks was surnamed Mnemon, on account of his extraordinary memory.

The reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon is rendered memorable by the famous revolt of Cyrus his younger brother. This prince had been, by Darius his father, invested with the supreme command over all the provinces of Asia Minor. He had also solicited his nomination to the crown on the ground of being born after his father ascended the throne, a claim which had given the preference to Xerxes. His mother, Parysatis, favoured his pretensions; but Darius made choice of Artaxerxes, his eldest son, who was born before his accession. Cyrus, however, had resolved to render his claim effectual by assassinating Artaxerxes in the temple of Pasagarda, where the kings of Persia were inaugurated. Artaxerxes being informed of this conspiracy by one of the priests, caused Cyrus to be seized, and condemned him to death; but through the mediation of their mother, Parysatis, he pardoned him, and sent him to his government. Darius, ever watchful over the motions of the Greeks, had adopted the system of fomenting their divisions by bribing their leaders, and supporting the different states in their quarrels. Cyrus, in pursuance to this policy, had granted such subsidies to Lysander, the Lacedemonian general, as had enabled him to break the Athenian power, and terminate the Peloponnesian war. By these means he had conciliated the affections of the Lacedemonians, and

* For a description of this kind of punishment, which is said to have been invented on this occasion, and which was afterwards frequently inflicted on state criminals in Persia, see 2d Maccabees, ch. 13.

† Plutarch in Artaxer. Justin, lib. 5.

had no reason to doubt of their support in the revolt which he meditated. He employed, therefore, Clearchus, a Lacede monian general, to raise an army of Greeks for his service, but under a different pretext.* Cyrus, indeed, made the most judicious preparations for the execution of his great project. He not only raised mercenary troops in Greece, but entered into a formal alliance with the Lacedemonians, who granted him the use of their fleet, but pretended at the same time to be ignorant that these preparations were intended against the king, his brother, in the view that if the attempt should prove unsuccessful, they might justify themselves, and avoid com. ing to an open rupture. The cities under the government of Tissaphernes, were seduced to revolt from him to Cyrus, which gave rise to a war between them. This event, which had been brought about by the intrigues of Cyrus, afforded him a pretext for openly levying troops, Artaxerxes being de ceived by appearances, was induced to believe that the preparations of Cyrus were intended against Tissaphernes, and permitted him to raise what forces he pleased. This must be considered as a remarkable, although not an uncommon circumstance in Persian history; and we cannot read Plutarch, Xenophon, and Justin, without perceiving this striking defect in the Persian government, of leaving too great a power in the hands of the viceroys, and suffering them to act as independent rulers, not only without concert, but frequently in direct opposition to each other's plans. It seems that the wretched policy of a feeble despotism encouraged this disunion for its own security.

The preparations of Cyrus being completed, his army consisted of 13,000 Greeks, and about 100,000 of other nations. His fleet also consisted of sixty vessels, of which thirty-five were sent from Sparta: and Tamas, an Egyptian, was admiral of the whole, Cyrus communicated his design to none of his officers except Clearchus, general of the Lacedemonians, lest the boldness of the enterprise should discourage both them

* Jastin, lib. 5. ca. 5. Plutarch in Lysand.

† Plutarch in Artax. in Agesilao. in Lysando, in Alcibiade. Xenophon Exped Cyri.