subject of reference. Some special devices for the same purpose may be noted incidentally as we proceed.

One rule is to interpret a pronoun as referring to the principal or prominent subject of the antecedent clause. The other rule is to interpret it as referring to the nearest subject. Prominence and Proximity are thus the two governing considerations; and they very often conflict.

'In this war both Marius and Sulla served; Sulla increased his (Sulla's) reputation, Marius tarnished his. Some plead for him (Marius, the last named) age and illness'. Here Proximity is the interpreting principle. In a very important reference, however, such as this, the proximity should be aided by prominence. This might be gained by slightly modifying the sentence structure: 'In this war both Marius and Sulla served. While Sulla increased his reputation, Marius tarnished his. Some plead for him—'. In this second sentence, by putting Sulla in a subordinate clause, Marius obtains the chief place,

The following is one of many examples in Spenser, where two personages are on the stage, and where the reader has no guide but the sense to tell which is referred to by the pronouns :

Therewith upon his crest

With rigor so outrageous he smitt,

That a large share it hew'd out of the rest,

And glancing down his shield, from blame him fairly blest.' In Hebrews iii. 2 we read: 'Who (Christ Jesus) was faithful to him (1) (meaning a person to be pointed out by the following clause) that appointed him (2) (Christ Jesus), as also Moses was faithful in all his (3) (Moses') house'.

The following rich specimen is from Roderick Random, chap. 2: The pedant assured his (1) patron that although he (1) could not divest the boy of the knowledge he (2) had already imbibed, unless he (3) would empower him (1) to disable his (2) fingers, he (1) should endeavour, with God's help, to prevent his (2) future improvement'. It might be relieved by means of slight changes: The pedant of knowledge already imbibed, unless he were empowered to

pupil's future improvement'. The pronoun now refers exclusively to the pedant.

Some readers may have been puzzled with the following newspaper announcement: "The Emperor Alexander presented to the Emperor William a portrait of himself' Of which? The only rule to go by is proximity, and that would make it a portrait of William. The meaning intended is doubtless—' Alexander presented a portrait of himself to William'.

The next example, from Butler, is not so obscure as might be expected; ambiguity is kept off by means of the regularity of the balanced structure. 'Almost any man is capable of doing mischief to any other, though he (1) may not be capable of doing him (2) good; and if he (1) be capable of doing him (2) some good, he (1) is capable of doing him (2) more evil'.

Occasionally writers, on becoming conscious of ambiguity, insert an explanatory noun immediately after the pronoun. This noun is sometimes, but not always, within brackets. Smollett writes: The doctor begged the captain to pardon Morgan with his (1) wonted goodness, upon condition that he (2), the delinquent, should make such submission as the nature of his (2) misdemeanour demanded'. The insertion of the delinquent intimates a change of reference of he. Then a certain Abbot named Cyneberht, I went to Ceadwalla, and asked that, if he (1) would not spare their lives, he (1) would at least let him (2), Cyneberht, try and make them Christians before they died'.

Where the reference is to the Deity, the capital saves ambiguity. 'And when Winifrith was left alone, God had pity on him, and He opened his eyes and he saw'.

Most troublesome of all the Demonstratives is the neuter pronoun IT.

The wind blew down the wall; it was very high'. This is ambiguous; the pronoun being referable to 'wind' as

principal subject, and to 'wall' as in immediate proximity; while the sense does not readily decide between the two.

Adversity gives wisdom; it ought to be greatly prized'. If adversity' be the antecedent, the sentence had better stand thus: Adversity gives wisdom, and ought (therefore) to be greatly prized' If ' wisdom' be the antecedent, say

-'which ought &c.'

Besides the backward reference to a noun, 'it' may also point backwards to an infinitive or to a clause, expressed or understood. He expected to be condemned to death,—he even desired it'; 'it' referring to the infinitive, to be condemned to death'. 'He shot a stag, and was fined for it' —that is, for shooting the stag', the infinitive phrase being implied in the first statement. 'We had the same objects in view as they had, and took pains to show it',-' to show (that) we had the same objects in view as they had'. chief priests and the Pharisees had given a commandment that, if any man knew where he (Jesus) were, he should show it', that is, 'show where Jesus was'. Surely the Lord is in this place, and I knew it not': the antecedent is not 'place', but the whole expression, '(that) the Lord was this place'.

6

The

Again, 'it' is used very extensively as a provisional subject, the real thing predicated about following in the form of infinitive or noun clause, rarely as a noun. This is called the Prospective or Anticipative use of 'it'. It is not allowed to walk on the grass': 'it' is the formal subject, anticipating the real subject, the infinitive phrase 'to walk on the grass'. 'It is upon record that a battle between two armies was once broken off by an earthquake': 'it' is prospective, looking forward to the noun clause-that a battle earthquake'. 'It would be selfish if we wished to keep him from going'. This is a nice case: 'It' anticipates, not the clause if we wished &c.', which is adverbial, but an infinitive phrase or a noun clause implied in that adverbial clause: 'it-our wishing (infinitive), or that we should wish (noun clause), to keep him from going-would be selfish if we wished &c.'

'It' anticipating a noun is common enough in conversation, but seldom finds its way into composition, except in very familiar style. Thackeray says: "'Tis surprising the magnetic attraction which draws people together from ever so far'. Even in a historical sketch (Principal Tulloch : Luther-in 'Leaders of the Reformation'): 'It seems a grand and heroic spectacle this solitary man in the old fortress of Coburg, looking &c.' And the other demonstratives are occasionally used in the same way, and in similar circumstances. But such examples are not to be

imitated.

The indefinite use of 'it', where there is no visible antecedent, may also be further exemplified here. In many cases the reference may readily be supplied; in others, it is rather intangible. 'It is very cold'—that is, of course, the weather; a thing ever in the mouth of everybody one meets, and consequently in no need of being specified. 'It is the hush of night': the context indicates time. How far is't called to Forres ? '—the inquiry refers to distance. The meaning in the following example, from Matthew Arnold (Sohrab & Rustum), hardly admits of concise expression : in our tents, while it is war,

6

And when 'tis truce, then in Afrasiab's towns'. And in the next example, the reference is at the point of vanishing, if indeed it has not already vanished: 'We have no other course for it but to steer through the twilight on the bearing of Burgh-Westra, and rough it out as well as we can by the way'.

The worst cases of the ambiguity of the neuter pronoun arise from the forward or Prospective reference, which, on numberless occasions, is mixed up with the retrospective references, whether to a single term or to a clause. These are the complications that need to be pointedly set forth.

The following is a double case of the Prospective reference by itself. When it is asked wherein consists personal identity, the answer should be the same as if it were asked, wherein consists sameness or equality'. Each 'it' refers to a clause coming after, and there is no confusion. We may notice in

cidentally that here again the balanced structure also contributes to the clearness of reference.

We shall now give copious examples of Ambiguous construction, stating at the same time various means of overcoming the difficulty. The method of cure depends very much upon the constitution of the individual sentences.

'When men are thoroughly possessed with zeal, it (1) is difficult to estimate its (2) force; but it (3) is certain that its (2) power is by no means in exact proportion to its (2) reasonableness'. The main subject is 'zeal,' and to that pronoun should be confined: the prospective references (1) (3) should be avoided. For 'it is difficult' say 'there iş (a) difficulty'; and for 'it is certain', say 'but certainly its power'.

the

'An event is said to be conditioned, if it is assumed that it occurs under a certain condition'. The first 'it', which is prospective, should be done away with; it would naturally refer backward to 'event': say if the assumption is'. Or 'if it is assumed to occur'—the reference now being to event'.

'If by happiness be meant a continuity of highly pleasurable excitement, (it is evident enough that) 'evidently enough' this is impossible'. The 'it' is so placed as to refer to the principal subject 'happiness'; this not being the case, we ought to remove it.

The idiom' it is', beginuing a sentence or a clause, is one of great value, enabling us to gain emphasis by inverting the grammatical order of subject and predicate. The occasions of ambiguity, however, are very frequent; and every one needs to know the alternative modes of obtaining the effect. Examples have been already given; the one leading device is to substitute for the impersonal verb, the corresponding verbal noun. 'It is asserted', 'the assertion is made'; 'It is proper to defer judgment', 'judgment had better be deferred'; 'it would not be incompatible', 'there would be no incompatibility'; it will be explained', 'the explanation will be given '; ' it may be doubted whether', a doubt may be expressed'. 'The curiosity is not illiberal that which