would seek', is instead of it is not an illiberal curiosity to seek'.

Another mode given in the examples is by 'there is', instead of 'it is'. 'It was necessary that man should find out', 'there was a necessity that man should find out'.

We may also adopt the alternative of giving a word more general than the subject; speaking of the horse, instead of 'it' we can say 'the animal', 'the quadruped', and so on. 'Here a British frigate was lost in consequence of having struck on a rock, the blow causing the ship [more general term, instead of 'it'] to fill and founder very suddenly'. The prominence of the complement in adverbial form has also been exemplified. (It is probable that) Probably the ship will sail to-morrow'. (It was seldom that anger deprived) Seldom did anger deprive him of power over himself'. Sometimes the fuller form may be considered desirable for emphasis, as here: 'In such cases it is almost impossible to ascertain the truth'.

There are many instances where a more substantial subject than 'it' may be substituted-especially a personal subject. '(It has long been the custom for the Orangemen of the North) The Orangemen of the North have long been accustomed to celebrate the anniversaries of the closing of the gates of Derry and of the battle of the Boyne'. (It appeared that he understood) He appeared to understand me well enough'. '(It will be in the recollection of our readers) Our readers will recollect that-'. (It was hoped) Hopes were entertained that '. 'It was foretold that a flood would come '-A flood was foretold.

So familiar are we with 'it is' introducing a prospective reference, that there is a propriety in using the form as little as possible with the backward reference.

'(It may be remarked) ' We may remark' that wit is very commonly mixed with the ludicrous although [it is] not itself necessarily laughable. (It was asserted) 'The assertion was made' by Lord Chesterfield, himself a proficient in the art of producing (it) 'the quality', that true wit never occasioned laughter in any human being since the creation of the world.

(It must be owned)' we must own', however, that as its essence is to give pleasure, so its tendency is to raise a smile, between which and a laugh (it would frequently require a nice casuist) a nice casuist would be required' to draw the line of demarcation.'

description of his Now, for the first

The following is from De Quincey's encounter with George III. at Windsor. time, I was meeting him nearly face to face; for although the walk we occupied was not that in which the royal party was moving, it ran so near it, and was connected by so many cross walks at short intervals, that (it was a matter of necessity for us)'the necessity lay upon us we had no choice but' to go and present ourselves'. The two references in' it ran so near it', might be avoided: 'for though the walk we occupied was not the one the royal party was moving in, it ran so near that—'.

'Although it is impossible to agree with this opinion in its whole extent, as language, whatever may be its defects, is the only means by which knowledge can be preserved and communicated; yet it is difficult to overtake its influence or meaning.' The two prospective its should here be avoided; the others, except the last, are referable to their immediate antecedents' opinion', 'language'; the last its influence' is ambiguous from the distance of the antecedent; and may refer equally to 'language' and to 'opinion'.

'It is not expected that they should do much'; 'much is not expected from them'.

This opinion is just, but it is possible to rely on it too long'; 'but it may be relied on too long'.

'Tennyson's meaning sometimes goes so deep that it is impossible to discover it'. Here the first 'it' anticipates the infinitive phrase, the second is retrospective to 'meaning'. Say that it cannot be discovered', or, 'that average readers cannot discover it'; or, briefly, 'His meaning is sometimes unfathomable '.

'It is easier to talk of humility than to feel it'. The remedy may be by the passive voice with 'humility' as

subject; or by taking an indefinite pronoun—′ one ’—as subject.

'It (1) being this man's business to flatter and make sermons, it (2) must be owned that he was most industrious (Thackeray.) This man's business being to industrious in his calling [substitution of

in it (3)'.

flatter

synonym]'.

"The parallel between the two cases is complete, and it (1) was a defect in the Education Act that it (2) tried to ignore it (3)'. (1) Is prospective to noun clause 'that it tried to ignore it'; (2) is retrospective to the Education Act'; (3) is still further retrospective, probably to 'the parallel'.

' It (1) [the Norman Conquest] did not abolish the English language; but it (1) brought in a new language by its (2) side, which for a while supplanted it (2) as the language of polite intercourse, and which did not yield to the reviving elder speech till it (3) had infected it (2 or 'elder speech') by the largest infusion that the vocabulary of one European tongue ever received from another '.

'In these two ways, then, the dominance of Latin proved baneful to the study of English ; it (1) for many a day made that study seem despicable and unworthy-in effect suppressed it (2); and, when at last it (2) could no longer be suppressed, then still it (1) overshadowed and withered it (2)'.

Sometimes the first 'it' anticipates an infinitive or a clause, and the second 'it' refers back to the same expression. In such instances there is seldom any real ambiguity, the reference being to one subject; yet the double action of the 'it' always suggests the possibility of being led astray. 'It would be absurd to make another attempt; it would be a mere throwing away of money': 'it' refers first forward and then backward to the infinitive expression 'to make another attempt'. In this example-as always when both its are subject—the second 'it' may be regarded as simply a resumption of the same position as the first 'it' holds, with a view to another predication about it. It is true my

purposes are innocent, but how is it to appear ?'—namely, 'that my purposes are innocent'.

Two unquestionably prospective its in succession may be troublesome. When the expressions are co-ordinate and not very closely connected, there is not necessarily any difficulty: as- It was impossible to abolish kingly government; yet it was plain that no confidence could be placed in the king'. Here the reference is clear enough, first to an infinitive, next to a clause. So: 'It was at length determined to abandon all schemes of offensive war; and it soon appeared that even a defensive war was a task too hard for that administration'. But if one of the expressions is subordinate or involved in the other, the double it should be avoided: It should not be forgotten that for the provinces it was a distinct gain to get one master instead of many’. Even though the meaning cannot reasonably be considered ambiguous, the double use of 'it' is suggestive of ambiguity, as well as awkward and inelegant. Another example: 'It would evidently be a great assistance if it should happen to be the fact that one element exceeds all the rest'.

The pronoun THEY merges sex, and therefore has not the advantage of keeping persons separate from things. Without having the same variety of reference as the singular neuter demonstrative, this pronoun abundantly occasions perplexity to the reader.

'Many of their [the Teutons'] chief settlements, and among them our own settlement in Britain, happened so late that we know a good deal about them'. "Their' means

persons, the Teutons; 'them' means things, settlements. Recast thus: 'Many of the chief Teutonic [corresponding adjective] settlements, and among these [a form very convenient for an immediate reference] our own settlement'. The single remaining 'them' will now refer unmistakably to the principal subject 'settlements'.

'The Presbyterians were secured by the appointment of the Assembly of Divines to reform the church after their model'. The reference of their' is to the principal subject;

but, from proximity, 'divines' is a rival antecedent, and we are at a loss which to choose. Better say 'to reform the church after the presbyterian model'; the importance of the qualification of 'model' is too great to be left in doubt. The following is an example of the confusion of 'they' in poetry :

‘Happy those times

When lords were styled fathers of families,

And not imperious masters! when they (1) number'd
Their (1) servants almost equal with their (1) sons,
Or one degree beneath them (2)! when their (3) labours
Were cherish'd and rewarded, and a period

Set to their (3) sufferings; when they (1) did not press
Their (3) duties or their (3) wills beyond the power
And strength of their (3) performance'.

No. 1 is lords, No. 2 sons, No. 3 servants.

'This word Barbarians, in its first use among the Greeks, simply meant that the people so called were people whose language the Greeks did not understand. They (1) called them (2) Barbarians even though their (2) blood and speech were nearly akin to their (1) own, if only the difference was so great that their (2) speech was not understood'.

Here is a sentence from Thackeray: If they (1) [the Prince's soldiers] miss the cupboard, they (1) will not find these [articles]; if they (1) do find them (2), they'll (2) tell no tales'.

In the following the chances of ambiguity are lessened by a certain regularity of form: The Israelites were forbidden even to mention the names of the gods of the Canaanite nations; they (1) were commanded to burn or destroy their (2) images, their (2) altars, their (2) sacred groves; they (1) were to deem accursed the precious metals of which their (2) idols were composed, and on no pretence whatever were they (1) to conclude any treaty or make any marriage with them (2)'. In each assertion The Israelites' hold the prominent place. The influence of the balanced structure is distinctly felt.