Something of the forward reference may be seen in the statement, They are under way, those sacraments' (Carlyle). This use of 'they' corresponds to such singular forms as 'He fell in her arms, the poor wounded Hussar'. Examples of it' were given above (p. 45).

The singular form he of the grey coat', 'he of the one leg', has a plural; as in 'they of Arcadia', 'they in France of the best rank and station'. They' is used for 'the persons'; but the meaning is incomplete, and we have to look forward for a qualifying adjunct. Not unfrequently a

clause follows: How sweet is the rest of them that labour!' The corresponding singular pronouns are similarly used, especially with the clause. The adjunct is always restric

tive.

THIS and THAT as Pronouns.

In the use of these words, we borrow from the Latin the distinction between hic and ille: hic, 'this', is the nearer of two mentioned, and ille, 'that', the more distant. 'This' may refer to something immediately preceding, or to something immediately to follow: it suits the reference of proximity better than the regular pronouns. 'That' does not

willingly undertake the forward reference.

In most cases, 'this' and 'that' have probably a greater emphasis than the ordinary demonstratives, the reference being apparently given with more point and directness.

This', like 'it', refers backward (1) to a single term, (2) to an infinitive phrase, and (3) to a noun clause.

(1) The king took no this was in no danger'. immediately preceding.

care of his dignity. He knew that 'This' refers to the noun' dignity', Perhaps the same emphasis could

not be given by 'it', except through the aid of italics.

(2) 'Berwick was meantime endeavouring to persuade the

Jacobite aristocracy to rise in arms. But this was no easy task'. 'This' stands for the preceding infinitive expression 'to persuade the Jacobite . . arms'. The reference is given with rather more stress than would be exerted by 'it'.

(3) Henry ordered certain Scottish ships to be seized. The Estates declared this to be a breach of the treaties'. 'This' is the fact that Henry ordered

to be seized'.

‘This ', like ‘it', has a prospective or forward reference, (1) to an infinitive phrase, and (2) to a noun clause. The usage draws pointed attention to the expression anticipated.

(1) 'I learned this at least, to bear up against evil fortune with a cheerful heart'. 'This' anticipates the infinitive expression to bear up &c'. It is a very emphatic provisional object to 'learned'. In such an instance, ‘it' could not be substituted without other considerable changes. example comes near the typical use of 'it'.

This was all thy care,

To stand approved in the sight of God'.

The next

(2) 'This' anticipating a noun clause: This now is wickedness, that any man should seek to drive me out of the seat of my fathers'. Their real complaint against him was precisely this, that he was not dangerous'. These examples may be compared with the similar use of 'it'.

ence.

'That' may be said to be confined to the backward referIt may point to (1) a noun, (2) an infinitive phrase, and (3) a noun clause.

(1) The public had little relish for the glow of enthusiastic passion, or the richness of a luxuriant imagination. To those, accordingly, Queen Anne's wits made no pretensions'. 'Those' points back to two nouns.

(2) · He appears to have good intentions; but that is not enough'. That, namely, 'to have good intentions', is not enough.

(3) ‘All men desire happiness; that's past doubt'. 'That, namely, that all men desire happiness', is past doubt. 'He stood his ground, and that firmly.'

That' saves by a pointed reference the repetition of the statement 'he stood his ground'.

'I am not so sure of that'; 'that is the question'; 'this is intolerable'; 'I do not understand this' in such in

stances, the pronouns refer to infinitives or clauses, expressed or implied; or to actions or facts that, if expressed at all, would be expressed in these forms.

It is in the backward or retrospective reference to nouns that 'this' and 'that' are most commonly serviceable for keeping off ambiguity. They may often replace 'it' or 'they' with great advantage to emphasis as well as to clearness. Besides, their sharp, decisive reference affords pleasing variety.

'All researches should conform to the four methods if they are complete'. 'They' may apply equally to 'researches' and to 'methods'; the ambiguity may be cured by 'these' which could apply only to 'methods'.

The same cure is applicable here: 'Boys in general cannot be brought to get any good from the thoughts of Plato and Homer by their study of the tongue in which they wrote'. Their' refers to 'boys', and should be omitted. They refers, by proximity, to 'Plato and Homer'; but for this purpose we should prefer 'these', whereby we also avoid the competing reference by importance.

ran

'The place where his jewels were, they never sacked; so those he kept still’. If the ordinary pronoun 'them' had been used, it would have clashed with the preceding 'they'. 'Those' refers back unmistakeably and pointedly to 'jewels'. There would be little objection to 'these' here: although those' is more suitable for the distant reference. Were the first sentence not inverted, these' would be the appropriate pronoun.

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Though nothing else be gained by it but the stilling of a scandalous tongue, even that will be worth thy labour'. 'It' could not replace 'that' here, being used earlier in the sentence with a different reference; to say nothing of its comparative feebleness. The general reference of 'that' is certain, although the exact form intended by the writer may be doubtful. Even that thou gain the stilling &c.',-a noun clause implied; or even to gain the stilling &c.''-an infinitive implied; or even the stilling of a scandalous tongue will

T

be worth thy labour', -a noun. All the forms give practically the same meaning. 'This' would be equally appropriate, especially if the last be the intended reference.

In the following example, 'that' gathers up all the parts of the process with weighty compactness: 'Writing a discourse coolly in the closet, then getting it by memory, and delivering it on Sundays, even that will not do.' By the side of this, it would be exceedingly weak to say: do even to write a discourse &c'. wise engaged, standing twice for

'it will not

Moreover, ‘it' is otherdiscourse'.

'He shall have from me five hundred pounds as her fortune; and upon this I am sure they can live very comfortably together'. The reference of 'this' might be expected to be, by the rule of proximity, to 'her fortune'; but perhaps the reference intended is, by prominence or importance, to the specific five hundred pounds'. In the latter case, 'that' might be considered more proper. Goldsmith should have written-He shall have from me, as her fortune, five hundred pounds; and upon this &c'. By such arrangement the 'pounds' get their desired place of emphasis, and the propriety of 'this' is unimpeachable.

'His skill in the art of composition surpassed his knowledge of the world; but that too was far from perfection'. 'That' refers to the more distant antecedent, his skill in the art of composition'. 'This' (preceded by a different conjunction so as to make good sense) would refer to the nearer antecedent' his knowledge of the world'.

Not unfrequently, however, 'it' and 'this' or 'that' appear in the same sentence or in successive sentences, with reference to infinitives or to clauses. Hence a great gain

in variety, and especially in distinctness.

The bulk of the people, it is true, were degraded by servitude, but this had no connection with feudal tenures'. Both pronouns refer, each in its own way, to the statement— 'the bulk of the people were degraded by servitude'. 'This' seems to take the firmer hold of the statement referred to. The reference of 'this' might also be to the noun 'servitude'.

'It was not possible to break the enemy's line without running on board one of their ships. Hardy informed Nelson of this'. 'It' is prospective to the infinitive phrase 'to break &c.'; 'this' is retrospective to the whole assertion'It was not possible to break . . . ships'. It is well to employ different pronouns for the different purposes.

'It may be quite true that many farmers personally dislike gamekeepers, but what of that?' 'It' refers forward, ' that' refers backward, to the same clause, 'that many farmers gamekeepers'. By the substitution of 'it' for that', ambiguity would not be incurred but the question would be rendered tame; by the use of that' the speaker lays his finger on the very point at issue.

'Men at Rome often spoke of making Britain a Roman province; but it was not till a good many years after Cæsar's time that this was really done'. The forward reference of 'it' to the noun clause 'that this was really done', separates 'this' considerably from the matter it refers back to, 'making Britain a Roman province '. The use of different pronouns for the different references is well enough; but we are tempted to simplify the statement thus-but this was not really done till a good many years, &c'. 'This' is now in more appropriate closeness to its antecedent.

The use of that' and 'this' to recall, without repetition of the actual names, two individuals previously mentioned, is for the most part confined to poetry. Several equivalent pairs are given in the Grammar. (ADJECTIVE, § 4.)

Pitt, in one of his great speeches on Ireland, exclaims—'I will not barter English commerce for Irish slavery; that is not the price I would pay, nor is this the thing I would purchase'. The hearer would have some difficulty in making out the references. A more explicit form would be-' I will not barter English commerce for Irish slavery; I will not pay the price, and I will not buy the article'. Or 'I will not give away English commerce to get in return Irish slavery'.

Virtue and vice are before you; this leads to misery, that