to peace'.

This' is the nearer, the last-mentioned-' vice': 'that' is the more distant, the first-mentioned—' virtue'. 'Some place the bliss in action, some in ease,

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these '. 'Those are the first, the persons that place the bliss in action': 'these' are the last, such as 'place the bliss in ease'.

"This' and that' often occur-especially in poetrywithout reference to individuals previously mentioned. In such cases we must fall back for explanation upon the simple pointing out of individuals as nearer to or remoter from the speaker.

‹ This racks the joints, this fires the veins,
That every labouring sinew strains,

Those in the deeper vitals rage'.

The description supposes the speaker as looking on and pointing successively to two individuals near him, then to one more distant, and finally to others also more distant than the two first.

'The busy sylphs surround their darling care,

These set the head, and those divide the hair,

Some fold the sleeve, while others plait the gown'.

These and those' are much the same in meaning as 'some' and 'others' in the next line; only they are more vivid, as they suppose the speaker pointing out the individuals, and marking the position of these as nearer to or remoter from himself.

The idiom 'THAT OF' borrowed from the French, is very convenient in our language. It saves the repetition of nouns in a particular well-known arrangement, and is most extensively used. The disadvantage of it is the superseling of native forms that are more agreeable to our ear. Moreover, the keeping up of the native forms conduces to greater variety of style; the tendency of all very marked idioms is to monotony.

'I need not make selections from a speech so well-known as that of Pym on the trial of Strafford'. This represents a

class of cases where the form is unnecessary; our possessive case being applicable-' a speech so well known as Pym's'.

'Such a character as that of Frederick'—' as Frederick's'. In this instance, we may by an allowable ellipsis, say simply, 'such a character as Frederick'.

'The eloquence of Cicero was superior to that of Cæsar'. 'Cicero's eloquence surpassed Cæsar's'. Another good variety: In eloquence, Cicero surpassed Cæsar'; still better, 'Cæsar was surpassed by Cicero'.

'If we compare the writings of Aristotle with those of Plato' 'if we compare Aristotle's writings with Plato's'; ‘if we compare Aristotle with Plato, in their writings'.

'If we compare the brain of the sheep with that of the dog': 'if we compare the sheep's brain with the dog's'; 'if we compare the sheep and the dog, as to their brain'.

'The song of the nightingale is more various than that of the thrush '—the nightingale's, the thrush's. 'In variety of song, the nightingale excels the thrush’.

'The agency of light is distinct from that of sound'. 'Light acts (operates) in a way different from sound'.

'The general view which Plato gives of Astronomical science is diametrically opposed to that of Socrates'. 'In the mode of viewing Astronomical science generally, Plato is diametrically opposed to Socrates'.

'The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense, nor so refined as those of the understanding'. 'As to its pleasures (or, as a source of pleasure) the imagination is not so gross as the senses, nor so refined as the understanding'.

'All sensations are reducible to those of Touch'. We might omit the pronoun-' reducible to Touch'. In such an important statement, we should not be wrong in repeating the noun.

The number of bodies yearly exposed in the Morgue is about 300, of which five-sixths are (those of) males'; or 'the bodies of males'.

'In the next department, that of pottery'. Here we need nothing but a comma or a dash: 'In the next department

-pottery'. If anything else is needed for this case, it is one of the phrases-' namely', 'that is', 'that is to say', 'to wit' (old-fashioned), ' viz.'

"The course of history is like (that of) a great river wandering through various countries'.

'When Milton compares Satan's appearance, after his fall, to (that of the sun suffering an eclipse

'The action proposed to be celebrated was (that of) Æneas's settling himself in Latium '.

'In the eleventh century, as now, the dominant Teuton knew himself by no name but (that of) Englishman, and was known to his Celtic neighbours by no name but (that of) Saxon'.

'The common conception of an army of fanatics is (that of) an army mad for one set of tenets'.

'When the Parliament had met, Pym was the first to rise. We know his appearance from his portrait-a portly form which a court waiting-woman called that of an ox'. Say- compared to an ox'.

There are many sentences where the expression 'that of' helps out a comparison. In these cases, we should seek the aid of the balanced structure, so as to place in corresponding positions the individuals that are compared. A few examples will show the advantage of repeating either the noun itself or some synonymous word.

'The knights of England found worthy rivals in the knights of France'. Those of France' would overturn the balance. 'The history of a battle is not unlike the history of a ball '; not that of a ball'.

'The face of justice is like the face of the god Janus'.

'The King's troops at first fought better than those of the Parliament'. Substitute the synonym adherents': 'than the adherents of the Parliament'. Or simply-' the Parliamentarians'.

The modes of varying the form of the sentence would not

be easily exhausted. One or two further examples are added.

'Their dress and character seemed those of merchants of

a higher class'. 'From their dress and character they seemed merchants of a higher class'

'His dress was that of a shepherd'. Alternative forms: His dress was the dress of a shepherd'-'a shepherd's'. 'He was dressed like a shepherd', 'he wore a shepherd's dress'.

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Though he talked like a man of sense, his actions were those of a fool'. 'He acted like a fool'.

Though the pronoun 'that' takes an adjunct most usually in the form of the preposition-and-noun phrase, this is not its only form of adjunct. The participle or participial phrase is not uncommon, and the adjective clause is familiar to us through the awkward combination that which', 'those which'.

'John's plan is simpler than that adopted by you'. 'That' is here burdened with a participial apposition. A lighter form would be-' than yours'.

'There was a great contrast between the scene we had just left, and that which we now entered upon'. A clause is hung upon 'that'. It would be preferable to repeat the noun, and improve the balance: The scene we had just left contrasted strongly with the scene we now entered

upon'.

'The specimens of this year are inferior to those exhibited in former years': another participial adjunct. It is scarcely worth while to establish the balance. We might stop at 'inferior' without perceptible loss.

'That' is frequently used in the absolute way for 'the thing', 'the object', 'the individual', to be pointed out definitely by a restrictive expression immediately following. This expression is perhaps oftenest an adjective clause, though other forms are also more or less common.

'What' often covers conveniently both relative and antecedent. That which we have seen and heard '-' what

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we have seen', &c. 'I tell you that which yourselves do know'.

what] you

'Those who think must govern those that toil'. Here the aid of 'what' is not available. Those' stands absolutely for the persons', and these are quite unknown till the accompanying clause explains.

This usage is common to 'that' with the ordinary demonstratives.

In the following example from Jeremy Taylor 'they' is simply a variety for the same meaning as 'those': 'Anger is troublesome, not only to those that suffer it, but to them that behold it'.

The INDEFINITE DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns are employed when it is desirable to state an action without precisely naming the subject. The chief members of the class are 'They' and 'One'.

'They' is not of equal importance with 'one'. It is most usually found in connection with verbs of saying, telling, &c.: 'They say—they tell me—that there is no danger'. 'They' stands for whoever expresses an opinion on the matter: it is the popular voice.

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This use is mostly familiar and conversational. In more serious composition, other forms are sought to give relief: 'There is said to be no danger' (passive voice), 'I hear there is no danger', 'No danger is apprehended', &c. 'One' does not readily take the place of 'they' in such instances.

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Here may be classed such examples as the following: 'At Vienna they were not altogether displeased at the King's landing in Germany'. 'They' is not quite definite; probably the government', 'the authorities', are meant. Germany they manage things better': that is, whoever has the management. It might be held an equivalent to say— 'The Germans manage things better': or, by the passive voice, Things are managed better in Germany'.

'One cannot be too careful'. The speaker means to state a general fact; as if he had said—' People cannot. The