from their quiet cloisters and gardens'. It would be somewhat hazardous to affirm whether the writer means that all the Fellows had refused to submit and had consequently been driven forth, or whether only a part of them had. The first sense might be indicated by a comma after 'Fellows'. The second sense would be brought out clearly and unmistakeably by that'.

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The advantage of the idiomatic distinction comes out when we consider such a slovenly abuse of 'which' as the following: The peace which was now made, which is known as the Peace of Westphalia, made some important changes in Europe'. The first 'which' is restrictive, the second co-ordinating. This awkward clash might be ob

viated: the peace (that was) now made'.

The next example will strike the most careless reader: 'Next in importance to the Aryans we must place those which are called the Semitic nations, among whom those with whom we have most concern are the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, and the Arabs'. 'Which' is restrictive, the clause selecting a smaller class; the first 'whom' is co-ordinating, the antecedent being already fully known and expressed; the second 'whom' is restrictive, a particular set being indicated. The double use of the demonstrative 'those' combines with the use of the relatives to make the sentence oppressively heavy. Besides, the transition from 'which' to 'whom' is rather disrespectful to the recognized usage of the pronouns. The mere substitution of that' would do little to lighten such composition as this: 'Next in importance to the Aryans we must place (those which are called) the Semitic nations, among whom (those with whom) we have most concern (are) ' with' the Hebrews, &c.'.

While who' and 'which' are very common, especially in books, in the restrictive sense, 'that', on the other hand, has never been much used in the co-ordinating sense for 'who' or 'which'. It can never act for 'which' in referring to a preceding infinitive or clause. A few examples may be quoted.

In Hamlet, we have 'the cock, that is the trumpet to the morn'; the meaning would be more properly given by 'which'.

'Has not your sister here, that never disobliged me in her life, as good a right as you?' Goldsmith should have written 'who'; the antecedent is fully given. It might be supposed that, if the meaning in the writer's mind were fully given, the expression would stand thus: 'Has not your sister here, one (or a person') that &c. '. But this speculation is hazardous. See also below.

Thackeray occasionally affects this usage. 'Harry remained with his regiment that was garrisoned in Brussels'. According to the general use of 'that', we should understand that Harry had a plurality of regiments, a particular one of the number being selected here. Again: 'The disposition for attack was completed under a severe fire from the enemy's guns, (that) which' were better posted and more numerous than ours'.

The frequent use of 'that' after a personal pronoun is very notable. 'I that speak unto thee, am he.' Here we are almost under the necessity of supplying mentally a noun placed in apposition to 'I' and limited or defined by the relative clause following: 'I, (the man) that speaks unto thee, am he'. The person of the verb would be changed in deference to the expressed pronominal antecedent: ‘I that speak'. So: 'Thou that wast seal'd in thy nativity the slave of nature, &c'. 'Wast' stands in the way of the supposition of an ellipsis: we cannot say thou (a man) that wast seal'd'. Still, on the formal suppression of the real antecedent, the verb 'was' would bend to the superior attraction of the apparent and expressed antecedent: Thou that wast'.

Further examples:

'I that did never weep now melt in woe'.

'And will she yet debase her eyes on me,

That cropp'd the golden prime of this sweet prince,
And made her widow to a woful bed?

On me, whose all not equals Edward's moiety?
On me, that halt and am mis-shapen thus ? '

Rich. III.

The correct form appears in the following: 'I, who know that enemy well, cannot think of such a battle without dismay'.

After a SUPERLATIVE, 'that 'should be used. Not 'he was the first person who discovered', but 'the first person that discovered'. A shorter form is allowed-' the first to discover'. Few grammarians would now support' which' as comparable to 'that' in this usage.

'The Romans were the best soldiers and the wisest lawmakers that the world ever saw'.

The first protector whom ('that') the English found among the dominant caste was Archbishop Anselm'.

Macaulay speaks of the two greatest and most salutary revolutions (which)' that' have taken place in England'.

Murder, therefore, is the most atrocious of all crimes, which affect individuals only, in the sight both of mankind and of the person who has committed it'. Of all crimes that affect individuals only, murder is the most atrocious, both in the sight of mankind, and in the sight of him that has committed it'—' in the sight of the murderer's self'.

'Brown's Inquiry into Cause and Effect is one of the most valuable contributions to science (for which we are indebted) 'that we owe' to the last generation'.

In the following construction, somewhat resembling the superlative, that' is also to be preferred. 'Man is the ONLY animal (which)' that' can combine sociality with solitude'; or, shorter thus-' the only animal able to unite sociality and solitude'. More concrete- the only animal that can live either sociable or solitary'.

'Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever sat in the papal chair'.

After 'ALL' a strong restriction is desirable. The higher and middle classes have been too anxious to take their

children out of all employments (which)' that' have anything mechanical in them'. This might have been 'all mechanical employments' but for the desire to put stress on the word 'mechanical', which is done by the use of a clause. The effect would be still better thus: employments that have in them anything mechanical' [the emphatic word thrown to the end]; or, employments (in) anywise me

chanical'.

'All that live must die '.

'I made him a present of all the good sermons (which) 'that' have been printed in English'.

After a NEGATIVE, the purely restrictive' that' should be used. 'There are no races in respect of which the preceding observations do not apply'. Otherwise; but (that do not) come under the preceding observations'.

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'No man who has written so much is so seldom tiresome': 'that' is preferable.

'He wrote on no subject which he did not enrich with valuable thought'. 'That he did not enrich'; or,' but he enriched'; or, without enriching it'.

For there was never yet philosopher

• That could endure the toothache patiently',

The same strong restriction is appropriate in other cases that are more or less similar.

'There is scarce a poet or historian among the Roman authors of those times, whom he has not translated in Sejanus and Catiline'. More satisfactorily: 'that he has not translated', or, but he has translated'.

So: Ben Jonson managed his strength to more advantage than any who preceded him'. Rather-'any that preceded him '.

'If there be any other substitutes, of which I am not aware'. Very ambiguous: it may mean—' I am not aware whether or not there are any other substitutes'; and also, 'If there be any other substitutes that I do not know of'.

For the first meaning-'If there be any other substitutes, and I do not know whether there be or not'.

'WHOSE' stands as a possessive form for both the restrictive use and the co-ordinating use. It should not be employed when there is any danger of ambiguity: other modes of expression may readily be found. The old rule that whose applies only to persons, is altogether at variance with literary

usage.

One or two co-ordinating examples of 'whose' have already been brought in incidentally. The Knight exchanged Balisarda for a less deadly sword, of which he carefully blunted the point and edge'-' whose point and edge'. Co-ordinating reference to a thing.

Those classes of which the inclinations are generally on the side of order and authority, were eager to promote popular reforms'. The expression is lightened thus: The classes whose inclinations are &c.'.

'Christ expressly told Pilate that his kingdom was one, the members of which did not fight'. The composition is more firmly knit thus: his kingdom was one whose members did not fight'.

• Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just;
And he but naked, though locked up in steel,
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.'
'Thou hast been

As one, in suffering all, that suffers nothing,
A man that fortune's buffets and rewards

Hast ta'en with equal thanks: and blest are those
Whose blood and judgment are so well commingled
That &c.'

An exceedingly important substitution is seen in many of the cases where the relative pronoun joins with a preposition to make up an adverbial phrase. This adverbial phrase may often be replaced by a relative adverb, co-ordinating or restrictive.

The place (in which)' where' the impeachment of War