ren Hastings was conducted was worthy of such a trial'. This is superior even to the form- The place that the impeachment was conducted in'.

'The only navigable channel ran very near to the left bank, where (= on which) the headquarters of the enemy had been fixed, and where (= on which) the batteries were most numerous.'

'I have given thee a faithful history of my travels, wherein (= in which) I have not been so studious of ornament as of truth'.

'That great city, (on which) 'whereon' the whole duchy depends, would have opened its gates.'

'We see the ground whereon these woes do lie'. With the proper restrictive relative, we should say 'that these woes do lie on '. Either is preferable to on which'.

'It was necessary to find some new mode by which the charges of the war might be defrayed': or 'some new mode whereby the charges might be defrayed'. Also, more simply, some new mode of defraying the charges'.

'The night cometh, when no man can work'. This is elegant for in which, during which no man can work'.

'None can venture to fix the precise moment (at which) 'when' either distinction ceased.'

'A soldier pierced his side, whence (from which) there issued blood and water'.

'The police actively sought for the dens from which so much treason proceeded'. 'The dens that so much treason proceeded from'; or 'whence so much treason proceeded'.

'He hurries towards Madrid to solicit mercy; whither (or to which, towards which) also other messengers were hurrying on the like errand'.

'BUT' as a relative. For a negative restriction, this is a very emphatic form. The following are examples. There is no moral rule (which) 'that' does not bend to circumstances.' Say- but bends to circumstances'. 'There is no conceivable object of vision (which is not) but is' coloured'.

'There is no man that hath left house, or parents,(who shall not) 'but' shall receive

'There was not a regiment which he did not inspect with minute attention'; . but he inspected'.

'Who is there that would not pity them ?'. 'Who (is there) but would pity them?' The interrogation has the force of a negative statement.

In many instances a pronoun is brought in along with 'but' more especially a demonstrative. With but' alone there is no apparent subject, object, &c.

'There's ne'er a villain dwelling in all Denmark

But he's an arrant knave'.

With this example the

The 'he' is quite unnecessary. following may be compared: 'On the bench of justice he declared that there was not one heretic in forty thousand who was not a villain'. In so strong a statement, the most forcible as well as most elegant construction is—' There was not one heretic in forty thousand but was a villain'. Not 'but he'.

'There was never yet fair woman but she made mouths in a glass'. The 'she' is not needed. 'But' gives a neat alternation for that did not make mouths'.

'There was not a bay or a haven but it was freer to our forefathers than to the natives'. 'It' may be dispensed

with.

'There's not a one of them but in his house

I keep a servant fee'd'.

Here the inserted pronoun is in the possessive. The ordinary form is scarcely so energetic: 'not (a) one of them in whose house I (do) not keep a servant fee'd'.

'Scarce a skull's cast up

But well he knew its owner'.

For-whose owner he knew not well '.

Sometimes a relative is found: 'If he landed, what would he find?

An open country; . .

could be forded'. Such an example

to the original ellipsis

not a river but which

points pretty clearly

'As' is the common relative after 'such', and is not unfrequent after 'same'. This construction, like the last mentioned, is the result of a great ellipsis. 'Such-as' is a

6

most useful interchange with those (the) that', 'they that', &c.

'Let the elders that rule well be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in the word and doctrine'. The proper relative here is the restrictive that'. The form 'those that' might also be used for 'they that'; but the best form is perhaps especially such as labour'.

'The inhabitants of Gaul, especially in those parts which lie contiguous to Italy, had acquired some refinement. 'That' is the proper relative here. 'Those parts that lie contiguous' might be smoothed down to the parts that'. 'Such parts as lie contiguous' might also be used. • The parts [lying] contiguous to Italy' would, however, be quite sufficient.

'The soldier was then subject to exactly the same law which governed the citizen'. The idiomatic relative would be that the same law that governed'. The recurrence of the proper relative may be avoided by the use of 'as':

6

the same law as governed the citizen'.

'The Welsh did not keep Easter on the same day that the rest of the Western Churches did'.

we may also give 'the same day as'.

That' is idiomatic :

Examples of earlier constructions after 'such' are reserved in the meantime (see p. 83). We shall first cite a number of miscellaneous examples, illustrative of various points.

'Of the manner in which we judge of other men : 'Of the way that we judge of other men'; 'of our manner of judging'. "The manner in which' is cumbrous and unnecessary, as well as at variance with the restrictive meaning. 'The manner wherein—' would be felt as too weighty and formal for the occasion.

'A paralytic limb is a limb (the movement of which) 'whose movement' is not consequent upon (that) 'the' mental state (which) that' is usually followed by such a

movement'. Or-'A limb that is paralysed does not move in response to the mental states that usually cause movement of the body.'

'Mental power, even when abused, is a nobler and better power than that which consists merely in corporeal strength.' 'Than the power that consists'; 'than what consists'; 'than such power as consists'; most elegantly, 'than mere corporeal strength'.

'Aristotle says, virtue is the law of our nature, under which we are born'. Better, 'virtue is the law of our nature, (and) under that law were we born'. The relative here is inadequate for emphasis; and we need to resolve it into its equivalent demonstrative and conjunction. (See Grammar, p. 193, § 14.)

Several of the Emperors wished to take away all images and pictures out of the churches, which the Popes did not wish to have done'. At first sight' which' might be mentally referred to 'churches' or 'images and pictures'; and it is not till we reach the end of the sentence that we see that the reference is to neither of these, but to the 'taking away' of them. The remedy is-' and this- or' but this—'.

'He is a man of real energy, and who flies at high game'. Two restrictions are here made upon a man', but they are incongruously expressed. The 'and' is meant to couple the adverbial phrase-' of real energy '-remnant of a clause 'that possesses real energy'-and the relative clause; but from its position we suppose it connects the relative clause with the principal. 'He is a man of real energy, and one that flies at high game'. Or make the two clauses co-ordinate-' He is a man of real energy, and flies at high game'. The restrictive relative does not apply well when a noun is already qualified even by an adjective. 'By this process we come at last to a highest genus that cannot be defined'. If the relative clause stood alone it would be correct, as it is meant to limit genus'; but genus' is already limited by 'highest', and 'that cannot be defined' is co-ordinate with that limited class. It might, therefore, be 'which cannot be defined', or a highest genus, one that is indefinable'.

·

·

Once more a highest genus, a genus that cannot be defined', the noun being repeated to take on an adjective clause explanatory of the first and equivalent description 'highest'.

'No education can entitle to the appellation-a Poet, a dull and unobservant mind, or one, though neither dull nor unobservant, in which the channels of communication between thought and expression have been obstructed or closed'. Much better here to convert a dull and unobservant mind' into the clause a mind that is dull and unobservant'. The 'in which' cannot be resolved into that-in, without an extreme separation of the preposition from the relative. For such instances, I should prefer the adverbial relative where', or 'wherein'; but most people would refuse to make a change.

'There are some attributes expressed by general words, of which this may seem more doubtful'. Restriction is here the meaning, but we could scarcely substitute' that' for which'. For one thing, that' as a relative prefers a close antecedent, and would be most readily connected with 'general words'. For another thing, the restrictions 'some', and 'expressed by general words' narrow the class to the area intended; and of that narrow class, the clause 'this may seem more doubtful' is spoken. To couple clauses with phrases on an equal footing is always awkward; and the best remedy is to change the structure. This may seem more doubtful regarding certain attributes expressed by general words'.

'Breathes there a man, with soul so dead,

Who never to himself hath said-?'-(Scott.) By putting that' for who we should have the restrictive relative for 'man', were it not for the phrase 'with soul so dead', which stops the way. There is here the awkwardness just mentioned of coupling a phrase with a clause. What is worse, the 'so' needs something to follow, and can be satisfied only with the clause 'as never to have said to himself', or 'as that he never to himself hath said'. Otherwise we must view the phrase with soul so dead', as a loose