wine and vine, have the allied Anglosaxon vîn and Latin vinum, French vin, for fundamental forms.

wind and vent, likewise lean upon the Anglosaxon vind and OldFrench vent, Latin ventus, of like meaning.

wise, mostly used now only in compounds, stands alongside of guise. The Anglosaxon vîse, modus, consuetudo and Old-French guise, Modern-French guise, manière, façon, are the same word.

why and how, Anglosaxon hvê, hvŷ, hvû (Instrumental from hva, hvät, quis, quid), cur, quomodo.

waggon or wagon, commonly waggon, and wain, a carriage, Charles' swain, a constellation, Anglosaxon vägen, vägn, væn, plaustrum. villan, also villein, is by modern Lexicographers distinguished from villain, a rascal; both rest upon the Medieval-Latin villanus, OldFrench vilain, vilein, villain, that is, laboureur and rustre. deploy, to exhibit (troops), and display, to lay out, Old-French desploier, with the collateral forms pleier, plier; compare the Modern-French déployer alongside of déplier.

cattle and chattel, moveable possessions, Old-French catel, chatel; biens, biens mobiliers.

convey and convoy, Old-French conveier, convoier; conduire, accompagner.

quaint and compt (obsolete), Old-French cointe, Latin comptus, comtus. cross and cruise (by sea), Old-norse krossa, signo crucis notare, OldFrench crois, cruiz, Old-Highdutch crûci, crûzi.

humor, humidity, has recently been distinguished from humour, a frame of mind. In Old-French the terminations or, our, eur, run alongside of each other: humor, -our, eur; but the Latin humor is perhaps here regarded alongside of the French form &c.

b) Other double forms are of a kind that they proceed from one and the same form of the word, and with a difference of meaning are distinguished from one another by a change of vowel or consonant. While the first-named often interchange their forms with one another in Old-English, we still find here the same fundamental form in the older language, with a diversity of meaning. The following are examples:

milk and milch, are distinguished in sense, but both seem to be related to the Anglosaxon miluc. Lowdutch has the Subst. melk and the Adj. melke alongside of each other.

mean and moan, Anglosaxon mænan, indicare and queri, dolere; OldEnglish menen in both meanings; likewise bemenen instead of signify and bemoan.

make was formerly used for companion, consort; match expresses the notion of the equal, adequate to another, as well as the abstract notion of a consortment of a pair in marriage; both still exist in makeless and matchless, of like meaning; Old-norse maki, aequalis and conjux, Anglosaxon maca, consors, conjux. According to Bosworth there was also an Anglosaxon ge-mäcca, which would chime in with the Old-English macche = match. metal, rarely used figuratively, and mettle, only figuratively, come from the Latin metallum, French métal.

nib and neb, Anglosaxon nebb, caput, vultus, os; compare the Lowdutch nibbe, a beak.

person and parson, Old-French persone for personne and curé; in Old-English the clergyman is also called persone.

beacon and beckon, both point to the Anglosaxon beácen, signum, nutus, and beácnjan, bêcnjan, indicare, annuere.

flower and flour, point primarily to the Old-French flour; yet it is remarkable that the form flûr is in use in that double meaning: flores and tenuissimum triticum.

to, Preposition and too, Adv., answer to the Anglosaxon tô used as a preposition (ad) and adverb (insuper).

ton, fashion, tone and tune, are borrowed from the same word, Greek Ts, French ton, Anglosaxon dyne, tonitru, sonus*), MiddleHighutch dân.

discreet is distinguished from discrete; French discret and Latin discretus, the former of which corresponds in sense with the English discreet.

sing and singe: like sving and swinge, are allied in meaning to the Anglosaxon singan, canere and sengan, ustulare, as well as svingan, vibrare, flagellare and svengan, quassare, jactare, but dissimilate only the consonant g as a guttural and as a dental. sauce and souse, Old-French sause, Modern-French sauce, from the Latin salsus.

scatter and shatter, Anglosaxon scateran, dissipare.

school and shoal, Anglosaxon scôlu, schola and caterva; Hollandish school, schola and caterva, scholen, congregari; Old-Highdutch schuole, also: meeting.

stick and stitch, are only apparently dissimilated forms from the Anglosaxon sticjan, pungere, transfigere and haerere, the former belonging rather to the Anglosaxon stëcan, pungere, icere, and as it has become unfaithful to its origin in conjugation (stung; stung, Anglosaxon stäc; stëcen), rather assimilated to the form stitch. It is otherwise with pick, and pitch, both coming from the Anglosaxon pyccan, pungere; compare Old-norse picka, frequenter pungere.

cap and cape, Anglosaxon cappa, pileus, cucullus.

cot, otherwise cote and coat, answer to the Anglosaxon cot, casa, Old-norse kot, casa and at the same time pectorale.

cup and cop, Anglosaxon copp, calix and culmen.

kill and quell, Anglosaxon cvëllan, cveljan, necare, trucidare, OldEnglish quellen to kill.

=

glass and glaze, from the Anglosaxon gläs, vitrum.

grass and graze, from the Anglosaxon gräs, gramen; compare grasjan, gramine resci, and other dissimilations.

Note by the translator: the connection of these Germanic words with the Greeks seems more than questionable. Tros, in the sense of the differentiated sound produced by the different degrees of tension of the chord, is an intellectual development of the Hellenic mind; whereas the dyne, din, tonitru, and stun-grou pseems to be onomatopoetic from a sudden, explosive sound.

c) In conclusion I must mention the peculiar double forms, arising when the verbal root, in the one case, as it presents itself in the infinitive of Romance or Latin words; and alongside of that, the Latin and, less frequently, the Romance participial form of the same verb are employed to form English verbs. The most frequent participial form is that in ate (Latin atus), which gives verbs answering to the Latin in at-are; yet others also occur. These double forms belong chiefly to verbs compounded with prefixes, and those leaning upon participial forms are peculiar to the modern tongue. Many represent no notional differences, and perhaps are only distinguished by their more or less frequent use. To those scarcely distinguishable in meaning belong, for instance: immerge immerse; incurve curvate; inhume inhumate; enounce enunciate; enerve (MILTON) enervate; announce annunciate; administer administrate; oblige obligate (litle used); prejudge - prejudicate; promulge (PEARSON) promulgate; transfund (BARROW) - transfuse; subduce subduct; complane complanate &c.

-

-

in

Others diverge more decidedly, in part at least: impregn; impregnate, infringe (a contract, a law), and check; infract, more rarely used. intone, intonate, the same, collaterally to sound loud, thunder; incarn, to cover with flesh; incarnate, to humanize; illume (formed after the Old-French alumer), also figuratively, is more poetic; illuminate (also of illumination with colours), to enlighten. include, to shut in; enclose (inclose), from the French participle enclos, which has also become a substantive, to fence in; aspire, to strive after; aspirate (of pronunciation). predestine, to determine before hand (generally); predestinate, to determine before hand by an immutable resolve (in the dogmatic sense); transfer, to remove (to another place), to convey (to a person) &c.; translate, (also an official person) or (from one tongue into another); comprehend, to include, also to take in (with the understanding); comprise, from the French participle compris.

In transmew (SPENSER) and transmute of like meaning, the same infinitive, first in the Old-French from muer, and then in the Latin mutare, lies at the root.

It is rare that a double participial form produces two verbs, as in the two obsolete adjute (Latin adjutum) and adjuvate (Latin adjuvatum, rare); and in depaint (French dépeint) and depict (Latin depictum), which are distinguished only by the usage, not in meaning, like the first named.

SECOND SECTION.

THE DOCTRINE OF FORMS.

Phonetics has to do with the body of the word according to its material nature. The Doctrine of forms considers the word according to its notional nature and its destination within speech, as conditioned or partly conditioned by the form of the word, and as a part of speech.

1) We distinguish different parts of speech, or classes of words, which are named according to their predominant destination in the sentence, while they are not precluded from occasionally interchanging their functions in the sentence.

The parts of speech are divided into Nouns, Verbs and Particles.

a) The noun names or denotes objects given in external reality (concrete objects), or imagined analogously to these (abstract objects), and the qualities inherent in them, which by their form or meaning indicate their attributive reference to the objects.

Objects are denoted by substantives, the qualities formally referred to them by adjectives.

If the object is not named, but merely denoted by a word passing for a sign pointing back or away to an object, either a person or a thing, this representative word is termed a substantive pronoun.

If the object is determined attributively, not according to a quality inherent in itself according to its nature, but extrinsically, that is, quantitatively, or demonstratively in the amplest sense of the word, this is effected by a numeral, an adjective pronoun or an article.

b) The Verb, or time-word, the essential word of the predicate, whereby a judgment is accomplished, serves in the sentence to express the activity of the subject, which falls in the sphere of Time, as the subject with its qualities is originally imagined in the sphere of space.

c) The remaining parts of speech are called particles, which, although commonly of small outward compass, are not of small import in speech, but essentially contribute to determine the character of the tongue. They are divided into words of circumstance, or, adverbs; words of relation, on prepositions; connecting words, or, conjunctions; and sounds of emotion, or, interjections.

The adverb serves essentially to determine the verb more particularly, with reference to the space, the time, the manner, and the cause and aim of the action. Its further functions in

the sentence flow from this its original destination. The preposition stands in an essential relation to the substantive, and determines, in the same aspects as the adverb, the more general character of the case more nearly and closely, as, in the absense of case-inflection, it undertakes the function of such inflection. The conjunction is the means of expressing the relation of the sentences to one another, coming, apparently, out of the sentence, although in fact acting as an adverb or a preposition. The interjection had the meaning of a subjective utterance of emotion, or of an affection, without any notional definiteness, and stands, in fact, outside of the sentence, although it may appear as the unconcious abbreviation of a sentence.

This characterising of the parts of speach considers them. according to their more general syntactical relations within speech. In the aspects of their form and of their original nature, as determinable thereby, the doctrine of forms has to develop them further, as syntax has to set forth their more particular destinations and their partial interchange among each other.

The more ancient tongues, as well as those generally which have preserved their inflective forms more complete than the English, distinguish nouns and verbs, as parts of speech capable of inflection, from particles, as forms incapable of inflection. This distinction is in English no longer completely applicable, nouns being in great part to be reckoned among the parts of speech incapable of inflection, unless we confound the substitution of case prepositions, (like of and to) for cases with the notion of inflection. But only the change of the body of the word by additional sounds or syllables can be called inflection, whereby the part of speech, without change of its notional determination, enters into distinct relations within the sentence. 2) Another aspect in which the parts of speech are to be considered in the doctrine of forms is the change of the body of a word, produced by derivation and composition.

Under the name of a root we comprehend the similar constituents of a larger or smaller number of words, in which a change or variation, or a dimming of the vowel, as well as a change of consonants, conditioned or explainable physiologically is certainly not excluded. All words belonging to the same root leade us to the conclusion of their original notional connection. The image of a root, with a meaning permeating all its stems and ramifications, is, however, solely of theoretic value. No root as such appears in speech; there every word appears as a definite part of speech, whose radical abstract meaning is separated and individualized, even when the radical sounds alone apparently constitute a word.

The simple word proceeding from the root may, as such, be augmented by inflective forms. The unaltered part is then the stem. That even derivative words may be capable of inflection, is readily to be understood, and we call the verbal body, amplified materially and more closely determined notionally, the