them on her ample lap (ID.). Hope. . Does what she can (LONGFELLOW). Pardon, clad like a mother, gave you her hand to kiss (ID.). Praise.. with her soft plume (YOUNG). Accuse not thy fate she may redeem thee still (L. BYRON). God hath yoked to guilt Her pale tormentor misery (BRYANT). And Havoc loathes so much the waste of time, She scarce had left an uncommitted crime (L. BYRON).

The masculine gender appears to be here rare; compare: Life mocks the idle hate Of his arch-enemy Death (BRYANT). Old-English: Hope cam Ac whan he hadde sighte of that segge (man) (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 351.)

2. The Adjective.

The adjective, or word of quality, which expresses the quality inherent in an object, solely in reposing upon a substantives into the notion of which the quality is to be taken up, is for this reason both thought in unity with its substantive as regards sex, and shares its changing relations in the sentence. In the languages phonetically more complete it has therefore terminations of gender, and also marks of case, to express its unity with the substantive. Anglosaxon distinguished more or less distinctly three genders of the adjective, with which the participle, as a verbal adjective, is also to be reckoned. Old-French distinguished, at least partly, two genders by the termination. Anglosaxon distinguished a strong and a weak declension of adjectives, whose cases certainly often coincided in point of form, the comparative following however the weak declension only. OldFrench still distinguished in part the nominative of the singular and of the plural from the oblique cases of the adjective. Modern-English has completely abandoned the distinction of gender, number and case by terminations, with adjectives not used substantively.

If the nature or quality which the adjective expresses is attributed absolutely to an object, the word of quality, as positive, stands in its fundamental form. If, however, that quality is attributed to one or several objects, by way of comparison, in a greater measure than to one or several objects placed over against them, this greater measure is expressed by the comparative of the word of quality, in which case two spheres only of comparison are proposed, whether the objects compared in quality belong to the same or to different classes of things. If, finally, a quality common to all objects coming under review is ascribed to one or to several of them in the greatest measure, the adjective expresses this highest measure by the superlative. The comparative and the superlative need therefore a different form from the positive. The Anglosaxon distinguished them by Suffixes, like the Latin; French, which lost the Latin suffixes down to a few traces, distinguished them by the prefixed adverbs plus, le plus. English combined both modes.

Tho Declension of Adjectives

In Modern-Englisch the adjective, as such, appears always in the same form: a virtuous man; a virtuous woman; virtuous men &c. They rather look like vagabond gipsies, or stout beggars, than regular troops (LADY MONTAGUE). Thus the adjective has become unknowable by its form. To this is to be ascribed the misunderstanding, by which substantives, which often appear in a loose connection before others as words of determination, are frequently cited at the same time as adjectives in dictionaries, as, gold, silver, stone &c, although it is a matter of course that substantives, in their effect as words of determination, may express the same import as the adjective combined with the substantive. In iron (Anglosaxon subst. and adject. îsern, îren) the substantive certainly coincides in form with the adjective.

Anglosaxon has bequeathed hardly a trace of its case terminations even to Old-English. Here belongs, for instance: Dame, have you godne dai! (DAME SIRIZ p. 7.). The Anglosaxon strong form m. gôd, f. god (u), n. gôd has in the accus. sing. masc. gôdne. To the weak form m. -a, f. -e, n. -e, gen &c. -an might i'th' olden time (SHAKSPEARE Macb. 3, 4.) be referred, since there is no Anglosaxon alden, but only ald, so that olden had developed itself out of the cases. On the contrary an e, which seems to occur more frequently with the feminine than with the masculine, has been preserved more obstinately in the adjective used in the plural, so that we can see therein a mark of distinction of the two numbers. Compare: God corn. . wateres he hap eke gode (Rob. of Gloucester I. 1.); pe strengeste me (men) (I. 111.); lawes he made ryztuollere and strongore pan er were (I. 266.). A sotil thing the sotile craftes (PIERS PLOUGHM. p. 294. 297.). In raggede clothes (p. 204.). Povere men to fede (p. 273.). Of avarouse chapmen (p. 300.). 4 principalle cytees (MAUNDEV. p. 27.). Many perilouse passages (IB.). Many goude hylles and fayre (p. 127.). Into Cristene mennes handes (p. 104.). This comes out especially, when adjectives are used as substantives: Of alle manere of men, The meene and the riche (PIERS PLOUGHM. p. 2.). Amonges povere and riche (p. 274. 278.). Whan thise wikkede wenten out (p. 22.). Oon of Godes chosene (p. 209.). We may certainly consider this e as a remnant of the inflective termination, which in the plural of the weak declension was -an, in the strong

-e, -e, -u.

Adjectives are in English, as in other tongues, also used as substantives. It is indebted for many adjectives used as substantives even to the Anglosaxon, still more to the French. Yet on the whole, among adjectives used as substantives only a small number assumes also the form of inflection of the substantive.

a) To the adjectives used as substantives which adopt these inflective forms belong mostly Romance, fewer Germanic words. Here belong:

) those, which become personal names for a people, as Ionian, Italian, Dorian, Spartan, German, Roman, Euro

pean &c. They are commonly already Romance or Latin substantives. Words like Scot, Greek &c., although partly occurring as adjectives, do not belong here as Anglosaxon substantives: Scottas (plur. tantum), Grêc. Even Swiss is a substantive.

Such as end in a sibilant or a hissing letter (also ese) do not assume the plural s: the Irish, the English, the French, the Dutch, the Portuguese, the Chinese, the Bengalese; on the other hand Tunguses.

Words ending in sh and ch do not occur otherwise than generalized with the article the, or universally negatived by no (the Dutch; no Dutch).

Otherwise determined, or used predicatively, man in the singular, men in the plural is annexed to them: an Irishman, these Englishmen, two Frenchmen; they are Enlishmen.

$) Names of persons, denoting the members of a sect or party: Christian, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Stoic, Cynic, Jacobin &c. They have also mostly been taken from the Romance or Latin, as forms already used as substantives. >) Names of persons of another sort are: impertinent, incurable, ignorant, ancient, modern, mortal, immortal, native, noble, saint, sage, criminal &c; which are joined by a few Germanic ones, as, heathen, (Anglosaxon hæden, adj.), black, white. Latin comparatives also, as inferior, superior, senior, junior, to which the Anglosaxon elder, better are added, and which we often meet with in combination with my: my inferiors, my betters &c.; but also otherwise: The juniors of their number (L. BYRON). The elders of his own tribe (W. SCOTT). If many of these words are found chiefly in the plural, the use of the singular is not thereby excluded, which dictionaries therefore do not hesitate to cite also as a substantive. But some are of course limited to the plural, as commons, infernals and others.

d) Concrete and abstract names of things likewise occur in the form of adjectives used as substantives, the latter indeed very commonly in the plural, like the Latin neuters of adjectives: eatables, drinkables, combustibles, materials, mercurials, pentecostals, vitals, substantials, valuables, movables, woolens, as the plural often stands with a particular meaning alongside of the singular: green, greens; white, whites; sweet, sweets home-made wines, molasses &c. Of abstract nouns belong here the names of sciences, as mathematics &c. (see p. 230.); universals: Universals have no real substance (LONGFELLOW); dialectically dismals melancholy feelings and others. Lexicography has to bestow a particular notice upon words belonging here, which withdraws them from grammatical rules.

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b) The great number of adjectives, especially of the Anglosaxon origin, as well as the participial forms, does not share the in

flective capacity of the above named. Anglosaxon declines them in its own manner; the usage of the Old-English we have above observed. English has at least refused them the plural termination.

") Adjectives of this sort used as substantives seldom appear in the singular as names of persons, as is often the case in OldEnglish: The poore is but feeble (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 287.). The poore is ay prest To plese the riche (IB.). In ModernEnglish the positive sometimes, but especially the superlative, is found thus used: None but the brave deserves the fair (DRYDEN). And Work of wonders far the greatest, that thy dearest far might bleed (YOUNG N. Th.). The great FirstLast (ID.).

In the plural this is common, and even where the adjective used substantively does not appear as the subject of a plural verb, we mostly have to take it as a plural: The poor of the parish, who were ranged on benches in the aisles (W. IRVING). Yet there is one, And he amongst the foremost in his power (ROWE). O ye dead! (YOUNG). There will a worse come in his place (SHAKSPEARE). Yet for the foulest of the foul He dies, Most joy'd, for the redeem'd from deepest guilt (ID.). Thy songs were made for the pure and free (TH. MOORE). Upon the combination of the adjective with one see further below.

8) Even in the sense of the Latin neuter the adjective used as a substantive is employed in the singular: This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine Making the green one red (SHAKSPEARE). Expose the vain of life (YOUNG). The fathomless of thought divine (ID.). Nor that the worst (ID.). Ambition makes my little less, Embitt'ring the possess'd (ID.)

The adjective used substantively, incapable of the plural formation with s, may however, assume the s of the genitive, both in names of persons and in the neuter, although this does not frequently happen. See p. 235. With the otherwise uninflected comparative and superlative this could hardly be the case.

The Comparison of the Adjective.

The denoting of the comparison of the adjective, that is, the formation of the comparative and the superlative, happens in two modes, the one answering to the Anglosaxon, the other to the Romance mode. The one is effected through derivational terminations, the other by the combination of the adverbs more and most with the positive. a) The derivational terminations of the comparative and superlative are er and est, which are joined to the positive: great, greater, greatest. They correspond to the Anglosaxon terminations ir (commonly ër) and or for the comparative, ist (est) and ôst for the superlative, whose e and ô however before the r in the terminations -ra, -re, -re almost always, often also in the

superlative, was thrown off: heard: heardra, heardre, heardre; durus: durior, durius; lang: lengra &c.; longus: longior &c.; on the other hand hefig: hefigera &c.; gravis: gravior &c.; hâlig: hâligôsta &c.; sanctus: sanctissimus &c.; strang: strengsta &c.; durus: durissimus &c.

Old-English still preserves remnants of the termination or, ôst alongside of ër, ëst: po pis kyng Leir eldore was (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 32.). pe stalwordore (191.). Lawes he made ryztuollere and strengore (266.). po was he & al hys gladdore (358.). pys lond nede mot pe pouerore be (II 370). & so pe feblore were (372.). pe zongost Cordeille (I. 29.). pe eldoste (105.). pe wysost kyng (266.). The forms in o, alongside of which those in e were of course constantly in use, were nevertheless soon completely lost. Instead of the termination est, yst is also found: The manfullyste man (PERCY Rel. p. 3. II.).

With the English forms of comparison the vowel of the stem remains unchanged: long, longer, longest. The Anglosaxon here frequently let the modification of the vowel, known in Highdutch as the Umlaut, and in Sanscrit as the guna, enter: strang (strong): strengra, strangôsta, strengsta; lang: lengra, lengesta, lengsta; ald, eald: yldra; yldesta.

Old-English preserved traces of this for a long time: strong, stronge: strengere (MAUNDEV. p. 278.); strengore (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 266.); strengest (ID. 15.); strengeste (111.); thus also we find lang, lenger, lengest, lengost, and others. Connected with this is the shortening of long vowels of the positive. which is not justified through the Anglosaxon, as swete: swetter, swettest (Anglosaxon svêt, svêtra, svêtesta); depe: depper, deppest (Anglosaxon deóp); grete: gretter, grettest (Anglosaxon greát); wide: widder, widdest (Anglosaxon vîd); forms which we frequently meet in Piers Ploughman, Maundeville, Chaucer and others.

Modern-English has in the forms: old: elder, eldest, as well as in better, best (pointing to a positive with a, Anglosaxon betera, betsta), traces of the ancient vowel modification.

The changes which the English positive undergoes in the forms of comparison, are essentially of graphical nature. Words ending in a mute e lose it before er and est: polite, politer, politest. This is also the case in adjectives ending in le with a consonant preceding: able, abler, ablest. The same happens if a vowel is followed by an e: true, truer, truest. If an adjective ends in y with a consonant preceding it, y transmutes itself into : happy, happier, happiest; not so in gay, gayer, gayest. The simple consonant doubles itself after a short vowel of the accented syllable: big, bigger, biggest; hot, hotter, hottest. The same takes place also with 7 in an unaccented syllable: cruel, crueller, cruellest (however with an elided e before I only one l appears: cruel'st racks and torments [OrWAY]); cheerful, cheerfuller, cheerfullest.

The Anglosaxon forms of comparison were early transferred to Romance stems, and Old-English took no offence at the lenght

Mätzner, engl. Gr. I.

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