state, as such a is united with substantives in like manner: . that on such a day the assembly shall be at their house, in honour of the feast of the count or countess such a one (LADY MONTAGUE). Compare the Old-English: Such an on as is of gode maneres (MAUNDEV. p. 287.).

15. all, Anglosaxon eall, eal, al, omnis, totus, Old-English al, all, is unchangeable in Modern-English: All Europe was looking anxiously towards the Low Countries (MACAULAY). All parties concurred in the illusion (MURRAY). All was dark and gloomy (DICKENS). Miss Arabella Wilmot was allowed by all, except my two daughters, to be completely pretty (GOLDSMITH); and may even have the definite article as well as demonstrative pronouns after it: All the time that he had appeared so indifferent &c. (DICKENS). The moon.. shed her light on all the objects around (Id.). Glancing at all these things &c. (ID.). This was also the case in Old-English as well as in Anglosaxon: Alle the dayes of pore men be wikke (CHAUCER 4538.). Anglosaxon: Ealle pâ ping (GEN. 1, 31.). The Old-English long declined: singular al, all, plural nom. acc. dat. alle, gen. alre, aller (alder): To fore alle opere pre (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 2.). pat is aller mon worst (p. 15.). Oure aller fader (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 342.). Your aller heed (head) (p. 424.). Hence also the forms alderliefest, alderlast &c. see p. 185. The e of the plural is certainly often cast off.

16. else is often cited in English dictionaries as a pronoun with the meaning other, one besides. It is in fact originally the genitive of the Anglosaxon el, ele, alius, which, however, mostly occurs in compounds, and whose genitive elles stands as an adverb (aliter); Old-English: elles, ells, els (even in Skelton). It is therefore to be taken adverbially: Bastards and else (SHAKSP. K. J. 2, 1.). As I have ever shared your kindness in all things else (L. BYRON). In Old-English we frequently find elles what, nought elles, as in Anglosaxon elles hvät, nâviht elles, in which the genitive still betrays itself as such. Modern-English: Naught else have we to give (LONGFELLOW).

17. sundry, with the meaning of an indefinite multitude, Anglosaxon synderig, singularis, in the plural singuli, Old-English sondry, has in the plural several, Old-French several séparé, also used for divers, plusieurs, Old-English several, divers, Old-French the same, Old-English diverse, and different, Old-French, Old-English the same, synonymous adjectives, in which the notion of variety has been weakened down to that of separation.*) The Old-English had the corresponding ser, sere, seyre, which is still in use in the North of England for several, many: Fioures . . of seyre colours (TOWNEL. MYST. p. 7.). Of many beestes sere present (p. 47.). Romaunces, many and sere (Ms. in HALLIWELL S. v.). It seems

*) The notion of separation as that of the physical, nearest to the sensuous, existing in space and time is the prius, and the notion of variety as the metaphysical is the posterius.

to have arisen by contraction out of the Old-French participle sevre (compare the substantive sevree separation). Several is also used substantively of persons: I met several on the road, to whom I cried out for assistance; but they disregarded my entreaties (GOLDSMITH). It is also joined iu the singular with every, with the meaning singulus: He gives To every several man seventy five drachmas (SHAKSP. J. C.).

18. certain, in the sense of the Latin certus for quidam, by which the existence of the object alone is asserted, but its more particular determination not stated or, rather, disregarded, passed early from the Old-French into the English: I am invited, Sir, to certain merchants (SHAKSP. Com. of Err.). Compare the Old-English: Or paide som certegn (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 268.). In Old-English it was even used substantively as a neuter (aliquid): Beseching him to lene him a certain of gold (CHAUCER 16492. Tyrwh.).

5. The Article.

The

The name article is given to the the, weakened from the Anglosaxon demonstrative pronoun se (pë), seó (þeó), pät, and to the an, a, likewise weakened from the Anglosaxon numeral ân. They primarily serve to single out for the imagination one single object or several objects from the totality of objects of the same name. former, as the definite article, separates them from their total sphere, as sensuous, or already known and present in intuition; the second, the indefinite article, presents one object to the imagination, but which may be any one from the total sphere of those bearing the same name, without distinction. The transfer of both articles to the total sphere of objects bearing the same name has to be more particularly discussed in the Syntax. Both are to be regarded as words unaccented, or, rather proclitic in speech.

a) The definite article the proceeds from the Anglosaxon collateral form of se, the pe. It has abandoned the forms for the different genders, numbers and cases, and takes the case-prepositions of and to before it, whereby the syntactic relation of its substantive is denoted.

Old-English still has distinct traces of the se, seó, pät, used as an article even in Anglosaxon: pe emperoures of Rome pat fogte and wonne Engelond, and pat lond nome (ROв. OF GLOUCESTER I. 3.) (Anglosaxon pät land, acc. n.). pen toun nome (II. 409.). (Anglosaxon pone tûn, acc. m.). Aze pen op (p. 443.). pen castel nome (p. 451.). Asayle pen false kyng (p. 453.). Atten ende at pen ende (409 and often) (Anglos. ät pam ende, dat. m.). The ancient language early employed the neuter that for all genders: From pat on se to pat oper (ROB OF GLOUCESTER I. 98.) (se, Anglosaxon sæ, mare, is m. and f.). On that other side of the strete (MAUNDEV. p. 90.) (Anglosaxon sîde, f.). And eek that lusty sesoun of that May Made every wight to ben in such plesaunce &c. (CHAUCER 2486.).

=

The t before other, apparently arising from the article the,

is remarkable, which in Modern-English is often separated from it by an apostrophe: And when he put a hand but in The one, or t'other magazine (BUTLER). Your ladyship should except, says t'other (GOLDSMITH). I saw t'other day the gala for count Altheim (LADY MONTAGUE). We might regard it as equivalent to the th, which even in Old-English appears before vowels instead of the article: Thanne is thother half durk and thother is al lizt (WRight Pop. Treatis. p. 134.). Yet in Old-English before this to ther, beside which also a tone, tane (to, ta) stands, we commonly find the article itself, which we could hardly take to be put twice: The tone of us schall dye (PERCY Rel. p. 7. II.). Athe tother syde (p. 4. I.). On the ta part or on the tothyr (Treaty of 1384. in LINDSAY ed. Chalmers s. v. ta). And the tother hond he lifteth (MAUNDEV. p. 9.). The tother 2 festes (p. 232.). The tothere ne ben not so grete (p. 52.). A fole the tone, and a fole the tother (SKELTON I. 260.). The tone agayng the tother (I. 313.). Naught justifies us in believing this t inserted from phonetic reasons. I should rather explain it out of the t of the that used as an article, which in Old-English so frequently stood before one and other: And rerde tuo nonneryes, Worwel pat one was, And Ambresbury pet oper (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 291.). There is a gret weye from that on to that othre (MAUNDEV. p. 63.). Compare also the instances cited above. Thus there would here be the same separation of the consonant of a preceding word, which we elsewhere occasionally meet with in Old-English, for instance, in atte nale for atten ale and the like. In modern times this origin has been forgotten and the t regarded as an article. Tone and tother are still popular in the North of England and South of Scotland.

The instrumental of pë, pŷ, þê, m. and n., having become unrecognizable, has been preserved in the form the, as in Anglosaxon, before the comparative in the meaning of eo (eo-eo instead of quo-eo): So much the rather then, celestial light, Shine inward (MILTON). The more I hate, the more he follows me (SHAKSP. Mids. N. Dr.). I love not Man the less, but Nature more (L. BYRON). Even Óld-English readily uses it in reduplication: pe lenger, pe more (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 110.).

The e of the article in poetry, as well as in rapid speech generally, often suffers syncope, not only before vowels, but even before cousonants, as in Old-English: My Lord, th'expected guests are just arriv'd? (OTWAY). When, or how, shall I prevent or stop th'approaching danger (CONGREVE). Th'industrious bees neglect their golden store (POPE). In th'olden time Some sacrifices ask'd a single victim (L. BYRON). Oh! that kind dagger .. drench'd in my blood to th'hilt (OTWAY). I'th 'very minute when her virtue nods (ID.). Who merit, ought indeed to rise i'th'world (ID.).

Old-English poetry often uses the more emphatic this, where the article would be quite sufficient; compare, for instance Chaucer: Duk Theseus. . This duk (1696. 1706.). This worthy duk (1744.). This Theseus, this duk, this worthy knight. . He festeth

hem (2192.). It stands particularly readily before proper names: This Arcite and this Palamon ben mette (1638.), where the ancient language even employed the unaccented article: At last the Duglas and the Persè met (PERCY Rel. p. 3. II.).

b) The indefinite article an, a, Anglosaxon ân, unus, Old-English an, on, a, o &c. existing only in the singular, according to the precepts of grammarians, stands, in its abbreviated form a, before all words beginning with a consonant sound. Among these are of course also reckoned those beginning with the semiconsonants w and y, as well as accented syllables beginning with an h which is not mute, and words beginning with u, eu, ew, an aspirate sounding before these words, as well as one and once, since to these a labial (w) is prefixed: a man, a tree, a heathen, a unit, such a one, a oneness &c. The fuller form an stands before all vowels (which are not heard with an initial consonant), before words beginning with a mute h, as well as before words beginning with an aspirated h, when the syllable beginning with his followed by the accented syllable: an inn, an umpire, an hour, an heir, an harángue, an histórical subject &c.

Usage is however not quite in harmony with this precept, since we often find an used even before aspirated vowels and before an aspirate h in the accented syllable: An useless waste of life (MACAULAY). An eunuch (CONGREVE). An unanimous resolution (GOLDSMITH). I'd rather be an unit of an united and imperial Ten" (L. BYRON); an héro &c.

Old-English early adopted the custom of retaining, an, on before vowels and h, and of setting, on the other hand, a, o before other consonants, and that even where not the unaccented article, but the numeral came in. Robert of Gloucester often has an before consonants: So pat per com of an wode . . an six pousend of Brutons (I. 211.); and thus too subsequent writers, yet compare: There scholde be but o masse sayd at on awtier, upon o day (MAUNDEV. p. 19.). Hyre lord and sche be of a blode. persones in a Godhede (Ms. in HALLIWELL S. v.).

Thre

From this assimilation of the proper numeral to the article, with regard to form, is to be explained the still frequent use of the article, where the numeral one, especially with the meaning one and the same, seems to be required: For a day or two I've lodg'd her privately (OTWAY). Halloo, said my uncle, falling back a step or two (DICKENS); and this is common in similar combinations. Compare: With a charme or twayne (SKELTON 1, 57.). We are both of an age (FIELDING). Then the poor woman would sometimes tell the 'Squire, that she thought him and Olivia extremely of a size (GOLDSMITH).

In union with other an is now treated as the ingredient of a compound: In less than another year we had another daughter (GOLDSMITH).

The indefinite article is capable of no change of form; of and to, serving as substitutes for the case-inflection, come before it: They made a bet of a new hat (DICKENS). These attentions. were directed to a young lady (ID.).

B) The Verb.

The verb, or time-word, is that part of speech which predicates of a subject an activity falling in the sphere of time. But every phenomenal mode of the subject, which is predicated of it, is to be regarded as an activity of the subject, whether spoken of as its action, its passion or its condition, since it belongs to the successive moments of time, therefore can only be apprehended as a movement and a becoming. The division and separation of the sphere of time into spaces of time from the most general points of view produces the tenses, or time forms, of the verb.

Sorts of the Verb, and their interchange.

With reference to their grammatical relation inside of speech, verbs are divided into various sorts, a decision which is partly governed by the relation to an object, partly by that to the subject of the sentence.

a) With regard to the relation to objective determinations of the sentences, verbs are divided into transitive verbs, denoting an activity directed outwards, and intransitive verbs, expressing an activity concluded within itself.

1) Transitive verbs are accordingly those verbs which denote an activity directed to an object as its goal, whether the object is produced by the activity itself or is determined thereby as a being existing independently.

Transitive verbs are distinguished into those which are such in the narrower and those which are such in the wider sense. The former are those whose object undergoes the effect of the activity immediately, and therefore stands in the accusative with the active of the verb: Hamilton murdered the old man in cold blood (MACAULAY). The latter are those whose activity requires an object participating mediately, which therefore stands to the verb in the relation of another case (the genitive or dative): If solitude succeed to grief, Release from pain is slight relief (BYRON).

English frequently effaces the distinction of both sorts, especially since the dative and the accusative, as in Lowdutch, are frequently not distinguished from each other in form, and the original reference of the verb to its object vanishes from the consciousness of the language.

The transitive verb becomes reflective, if it has its subject for its object; it then receives a personal pronoun for its object: He hid himself (WEBST.). Here will we rest us (LONGFELLOW). They defended themselves against the Saxons (W. SCOTT). Reflective verbs, in the narrower sense, which can have only a personal pronoun for their object, are now hardly known to Modern-English. Old-English had a multitude of impersonal reflective verbal forms, whereof methinks, meseems are obsolete remains, along with which it irks me, it lists him, and the like remain in use. Old