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be by: betime,, betimes, comp. Middlehighdutch bizîte; beside, besides. By is not found blended, as in: by land, by water, by stealth, by chance, by degrees &c.

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before and behind: beforehand previously &c., also aforehand; beforetime formerly; behindhand backward, tardy, also as an adjective.

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per in Romance formations: peradventure, Old-English peraventure, peraunter; percase (percace JACK JUGLER); perchance, in the same signification as the imitated form perhaps, Oldnorse happ, bona sors, compare the Anglosaxon adj. häpp, commodus; perforce; perdy certainly, French par Dieu! as an interjection.

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for: forsooth, Old-English forsothe, Anglosaxon for sôd, pro veritate. Compare: And he woot the sothe (PIERS PLOUGHM. p. 199.). Besides, for appears separated: for instance &c. within is compounded in withinside, which is also regarded as an adjective.

to is put in nearer connection with determinations of time: to-morrow, from the Anglosaxon subst. morgen; to-night; to-day, Anglosaxon tô niht, tô däg, dialectically also to-month = this month, to-year, like the Old-English to yere this year. In other cases we leave to without closer connection with the substantive, as in to boot (SHAKSP.); compare Old-English to sope (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER)= forsooth.

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2) The adverbial determination of the activity is often expressed by prepositions with adjectives or adjective adverbs, yet the prepositions mostly stand separated from the adjective. Compare in vain, French envain; in common; in short; ere long; ere now, compare Anglosaxon ær þam, ær þonne; at unawares, as at once, for which atones, attones, atenens &c. stands in OldEnglish; at last; at least; at first; Old-English also averst and aterst, Anglosaxon ät ærestan, primum; on high; of old; of late; over all (And light was over all (MILTON), yet also spelt over-all, Old-English over al; from high; from far (afar) &c.

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The greater and almost sole number of blendings of the preposition with the adjective is comprised by the composition with a (Anglosaxon on, an, ô, á). The next section explains the prepositions which have arisen in this manner. Here belong: anew; anon (ever and anon - every now and then); from the numeral, Anglosaxon on ân, continuo, Old-English also anone, anonen; alate (obsolete) = lately; along, also alongst (Somerset), which is at the same time to be regarded as a prepositon, arose from the Anglosaxon andlang, prep., in longum, per; aloud loudly. alow, Old-English alowe, alough, alogh below; abroad widely, at large, belonging to the Angl. brâd latus. Grimm distinguishes abroad, as the Old-norse á braut, abhinc; in OldEnglish abrood (PIERS PLOUGHM.) also stands for the latter; afar, Old-English also oferrom, afarne, from the Anglosaxon adv. feorran (the contrary of the obsolete anear, dialectically also anearst); aflat, from flat Old-norse flatr, planus; afresh Anglosaxon försc; awry, from wry crooked, distorted, from the

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anew,

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Gothic vraiqvs; adry, passes now for an adjective, yet it is perhaps properly on the dry; compare Anglosaxon on pam drygean (LUCAS 23, 31.); athwart, Anglosaxon on pveorh, see thwart p. 392.; asunder, now commonly in sunder, formerly also asunderly; separatim, Anglosaxon on sundran, âsundron; aslant, from slant oblique, compare Swedish slentra. Besides we also find formerly aslet and asloute, as well as dialectically aslew and aslash with the same meaning; aslope from slope, see above; askew, see above skew and Old-norse á ská, oblique; askaunt and askaunce, else also ascance, ascaunce, is also used in OldEnglish in the meaning of askew and at the same time of scarcely. In the meaning of askew it is allied to the latter, as well as to asquint, compare the verb sken in the North of England, like squint; in the meaning scarcely it belongs to scant, see p. 392.; the termination ce is to be regarded as a genitive termination; asquint, like askew and askaunt, from squint, dialectically (Craven) also asquin, in Eastern dialects sqywinniken, squinny, squin-eies sec. XVII. = squinting eyes; allied to skew; agood, may also spring from the substantive good, Anglosaxon god; ahigh on high.

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Other combinations of prepositions with adjectives are those from ere in erelong: before long; erenow before this time; after in afterall at last, with the indeterminate pronoun all; likewise with in withal; be in below, Old-Engl. also alowe; here also belike (SHAKSP.) seems to belong, for which be ikely stands in Bishop Hall, whereas in the regular besure the abbreviation from to be sure is contained. In together a primitive adverb may also be found, Anglosaxon to gädere, for which in Old-English togideres also stands (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 167.).

3) The union of prepositions with adverbs of another sort concerns particularly the pronominal adverbs, which the former usually follow, as in therein, Old-English therinne, thereinto, thereabout, also thereabouts, with the genitive 8, thereafter, thereat, thereon, thereof, thereout, thereunto, thereunder, thereupon, thereby, therefore, therefrom, Old-English also therefro (PIERS PLOUGHMAN p. 223.), therewith, therewithal, thereto; titherto; thencefrom (obsolete); herein, hereinto, hereabout (hereabouts), hereafter, hereat, hereon, hereof, hereout, hereunto, hereupon, hereby, herewith, hereto, heretofore; hitherto; wherein, whereinto, whereabout (whereabouts), whereat, whereof, whereunto, whereupon, whereby, wherefore, wherewith, wherewithal, wherethrough &c. They are formed partly after the Anglosaxon precedent; compare: pærinne, pærâbûtan, pæräfter, pæron, pærof, pærufon, pærûte, pærmid, parvid, pærtô; panonveard, whereas in the other Anglosaxon particles of this class the compounds seem to be wanting. Other adverbs rarely have prepositions subjoined, as forthwith. More rarely still a connected preposition precedes adverbs of this sort, like be in behind, Old-English also ahind, ahint, and beyond; although prefixed prepositions otherwise occur, as in from hence (thence, whence), where the superfluous from is censured by grammarians, from where, from elsewhere, till then &c.

f) The Negative and Affirmative Particles.

From the aforesaid adverbs the negative and affirmative particles are distinguished, which require a particular discussion, so far as they are not touched upon hereafter among Conjunctions.

The primitive English negative, or the negation of the reference of the subject to the predicate, was denoted by ne (Anglosaxon në), which always preceded the predicative verb: Devyne ye, for I ne dar (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 13.). This ne was in Anglosaxon and in Old-English sometimes blended with the following verb, as habban, villan, vitan, vesan, in which the initial consonant was cast off, as nabban, nillan, nesan &c., Old-English_nave = have not; nill = will not; niste = = wiste not; nam, nis, nas, nere= am, is was, were not &c. In print we often find n'am, n'is, n'hath &c. with the mark of elision. These Anglosaxon negative particles coincided in form. with the Old-French ne.

This ne is to be distinguished from another ne, which answered to the Anglosaxon né, neque, and in reduplication was equal to the Latin neque -nê: Lewed men ne koude neque, Anglosaxon nê Jangle ne jugge (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 9.). There is no bawme ne gumme of Arabe More delectable (SKELTON I. 303.). This ne is obsolete, but is found here and there, for instance in L. Byron. Modern-English commonly replaces the single ne (nê) by nor, the reduplicated by neither nor. See the Conjunction.

The simple negation has, as in other Germanic tongues, yielded to that compound one in which itself constitutes the negative element, and whose expletives originally followed the verb in order to strengthen it. In Modern-English it appears as not, which is the shorter form for naught, nought, Old-English also noght, nat &c. is, the Anglosaxon nâviht, nâuht, nâht, nôht, nât, that is ne-â-viht (vuht), unquam hilum (creatura), nihil. Compare the original separation of ne vilt in the Anglosaxon: He ne mehte viht gefeohtan, non potuit pugnare (Beóv. 2160.).

ne

The strengthened negation early appeared alongside of ne: Thei wil noughte, that thei dyen of kindely dethe MAUNDEV. p. 194.). Thei wol noght come there (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 67.). My strengthe may not be told (TOWNEL. MYST. p. 3.). He was not pale as a forpined gost (CHAUCER p. 2. II. Tyrwh.). And where not, noght is to be taken as properly a substantive indefinite pronoun, nothing also took its place (see below), which still occurs in moderns as a strengthened negation: You know it. well and feel it nothing (L. BYRON).

In Old-English however these strengthened negatives are very commonly added to the nenon and ne= neque, as the accumulation of negatives was familiar to Old-English: This ne yeveth noght of God etc. (PIERS PLOUGHм, p. 67.). Nothing ne knew that it was Arcite (CHAUCER p. 12. I. Tyrwh.). Ne con ich saien non falsdom Ne non I ne shal (DAME SIRIZ p. 4.). Hit semyd hym never ne never shalle (TOWNEL. MYST. p. 4.). Similar accumulations are still found in Modern-English: Harp not on that; nor do not banish reason For incredulity (SHAKSP. Meas. for Meas.), yet are rejected by grammarians.

Modern strengthenings of not by substantive accusatives, denoting a trifling object, among which even a whit (from the Anglosaxon viht) again occurs, are analogous to similar ones in Old-French. Old-English: To be corsed. . The counteth noght a bene (not a bean) (PIERS PLOUGнм. p. 51.), when never often appears instead of not: never a del, never a whyt &c. Modern-English: Th' one has my pity; not a jot the other (SHAKSP. Meas. for Meas.). I perceive, you delight not in music. Not a whit, when it jars so." (Two Gentl. of V.). Here belongs also not a bit &c. A similar one is effected by other adverbial determinations, as not at all &c.

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In rapid utterance not is attracted enclitically, even with the loss of its vowel, to a preceding word, as in can't, don't &c., wouldn't &c. Instead of the negation not there also appears no, Old-English na, no, before adverbs. If the origin of no in nowhere is dubious (compare anywhere, everywhere) and no appears as the indefinite pronoun, although the Old-English neverwhere also occurs instead, it unquestionably is equivalent to the Anglosaxon ná, nô = ne-â, nunquam, non, before comparatives. Compare Anglosaxon nô pý läs, Old-English natheless, Modern-English nevertheless, as opposed to the affirmative Anglosaxon â pŷ mâ, eo magis, compare evermore, now equal to always. Modern-English: I can go no farther, sir (SHAKSP. Temp.). I will put off my hope, and keep it no longer for my flatterer (IB.). Hold up the jest no higher (Merry Wiv.). Go, sin no more! (LONGFELLOW). To die is no less natural than those acts of this clay (L. BYRON). This no rarely stands before other than adverbial comparatives, as in: It will seem no more to thee Than if.. I should a little longer stay Than I am used (LONGFELLOW). Old-English: & ne my3te noleng sytte (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 185.). He was so wery, that he myghte no ferthere (MAUNDEV. p. 148.). It rennethe no furthermore (p. 102.). I suffre yow no lenger (PIERS PLOUGHM. p. 65.). Na-moore (as little) myghte God be man (p. 343.); yet also before the comparative used substantively: I kan na-moore seggen (p. 53.).

The obsolete negative is expressed by the same no, compare Gothic ne, in the dialects of the North of England still na. But alongside of it stands the now little used nay, which only accidentally coincides with the Old-French naie, and represents the same word as no (Anglosaxon ne-â). Compare above the adverb aye, p. 390, and below ay for yes. In Old-English it is frequently used for no: The seyn simply 3e, and nay (MAUNDEV. p. 292.). He.. that couth not say nay (TOWNEL. MYST. p. 112.). Can he hem thank? Nay, God wot, never a del (CHAUCER p. 23. II. Tyrwh.). In Modern-English it is often, like the Latin immo, used in outbiddings: Are all prepared?" They are nay more embark'd (L. BYRON). Also in challenges and exhortations: Nay then! And not a word said he. Nay, why so downcast? Jaspar cried (SOUTHEY). Also the Old-English formula: By ya or nay! (CHAUCER) is still found in Modern-English: By yea and nay! by my faith! (SHAKSP, Merry Wiv. 4, 2. Love's L. L. 1, 1.). Whence the old verb denay, approaching in sound to the Romance deny.

The obsolute affirmation is denoted by the obsolescent yea, OldEnglish 3e (DAME SIRIZ, MAUND.), ge, which still stands frequently in Skelton, and ya, Anglosaxon gea, etiam, sane, signifies, and is still commonly opposed to the nay, and is preserved mostly in solemn speech; but the affirmation is commonly effected by yes, the amplified ye, Anglosaxon gëse, gise, gyse, that is, sane sit (se sie, sî). Alongside of it ay, Anglosaxon dever, in northern dialects also aw (Warwickshire), is still in a limited measure current, to which perhaps the West-English yaw yes belongs. In the older writings is frequently found for it, which has been perhaps produced through the common pronunciation of the ay. Compare „All ready?" cried the captain; Ay, ay" the seamen said (WHITTIER).

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We may also regard as substitutes for adverbial particles sentences and elliptical expressions, for which perhaps adverbs might be substituted, as: may be; howbeit however; as it were, as't were (SHAKSPEARE); as though it were; to wit; to be sure and the like, which sufficiently betray their original syntactical relation, and penetrate out of the more rapid colloquial into the written language.

2) The Preposition.

Prepositions, or words of relation, stand in immediate relation to a noun, whose relation to the notion of the activity they denote in a less general, more closely defined manner than is done by the case alone. The preposition denotes primarily a relation of space, is then transferred to the temporal, and finally extended to causal and modal relations. The more modern and periphrastic prepositions sometimes have no longer the original reference of this part of speech to relations of space.

The English prepositions are mostly founded upon Anglosaxon ones, which could frequently be combined with two and even three different cases, whereas in English they all appear with the same oblique case.

Prepositions are divided, on the one hand, according to their form, into simple and compound; on the other hand, into those founded upon ancient particles and those demonstrably founded upon nouns, with or without prefixed particles. Lastly we may here place periphrastic forms, serving as substitutes for prepositions. We accordingly distinguish: a) prepositions proper, or, those resting upon particles; b) prepositions developed out of nouns; c) prepositional forms.

a) Prepositions proper are partly simple, partly compound. The simple ones do not contain derivatives.

1) Simple are:

in, Anglosaxon in, with dat. acc. in, ad, Old-English the same. In in carless speech sometimes casts off its n, especially before the article: I' the death of darkness (SHAKSPEARE Temp.). at, Anglosaxon äl, with dat. an, in, apud, ab, de.

on, Anglosaxon on, an, ô, ô, with dat. in, cum; with acc. in, contra, Old-English on, an, a. On is sometimes shortened to o': A pox o' your throat (SHAKSP. Temp.), where it may inaptly