mutilations of the diminutive: By'r lakin! (SHAKSP.) (By our lakin! SKELTON), and in the North of England Beleakins! The asseverations By Jings! Jinkers! are referred by Fiedler to the name Jesus; by others to St. Gingoulph, as to which we may mention that in the North of England By Jen! refers to John. The devil is not only invoked as Devil! but also as Deuce! dyce! in Skelton, and the Dickens! Whether O, gemini! which also becomes asseverative (SHERIDAN Rivals) and as Gemming! is an expression of surprise in various dialects, answers to the Highdutch Oh Jemine! Slav. jojmene! I leave undecided.

f) Invocations and Calls with various intentions are numerous. With holloa! hollo! holla! we call, especially from a distance, compare French holà! also occur here hola! ola!: Hola! ancient Baltasar. Here I am" (LONGFELLOW). Ola, good man! - „Ola!" (ID.); likewise with ho! hoa! Martina! ho! Martina! (LONGFELLOW). Ho! seneschal, another cup! (ID.); strengthened: What ho! Yo ho! and with hoy! hey! Hey! Trapanti! (COLLY CIBBER) and Hip! (SMART); with less exertion and partly privately by hem! and hist!: Hem! hem! Madam hem! (SHERIDAN Rivals). Hist! hist! Donna Violanta (CENTLIVRE). Hist! Martina! One word with you (LONGFELLOW).

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The ancient cry for help harow! Old-French haro, in Spenser has been abandoned. Modern-English has help! hoa! The encouraging summons is well then! (= French allons); the sailors shout: Ohoi! and yo heave ho!: Cheerly, my hearties! Yo heave ho! (LONGFELLOW); shout of approval: bravo! well you! also well done you!

Attention is awakened by verbal forms, as hark! look! see! and the like, Old-English we, wemo, wemay (TOWNEL. MYST.). The sheriff or cries commands silence before a proclamation by the Old-French imperative oyes! (oyez). In common life mum! hist! whist! hush! tut! tush! as well as the substantives silence! peace! are used, which partly express reproach and a monition to be attentive. With bo! we frighten men. Children are lulled to sleep by lullay, lullaby and the like. Compare: With lullay, lullay, lyke a childe Thou slepyst (SKELTON I. 22.), with which arbitrary variations are associated. A halt at sea is commanded by avast!

=

stop!

The English driver has encouraged horses from olden times by hait, Old-English heit (even in Chaucer: Heit, scot, heit brok! heit now!), Old-French hait He turns them to the left by the cry hait-wo! as well as by camether, Old-English come heder (TowNEL. MYST. p. 9, of ploughing); to the right by ree! and gee! He brings them to a stand by joss! Old-English jossa! (CHAUCER) and stank! The cattle driver's cry is prou! that of the goose driver: shough! (shōō). The dog is set on by hey! Hey, Mountain, hey! (SHAKSP. Temp.); Old-English: Hey! dogge, hey! (SKELTON I. 101.); as also enticed: Hay, chysshe, come hyder (p. 261.) He is sent home by hout: Hout, hout, to kennel, sirrah, go (OTWAY). Swine are enticed by tig! in several counties. Soho! is an old exclamation, Old-English sohowe, sometimes spelt

sohow even now, which is customary as a term of the chase upon finding the hare (PROMPT. PARVUL.), as the cry whoo resounds at the death of the beast in whoo-up! and many more.

g) Consideration and doubt are expressed by hum! humph! also um! to which is added hem! (COLLEY CIBBER), also as the expression of embarrassment. The frequently employed, originally interrogative why! Anglosaxon hvŷ, quomodo, cur? may also be regarded as an expression of reflection and a decision following upon it: And you bore all with patience, I make no doubt? Why, yes, though I made some occasional attempts at felo de se" (SHERIDAN). Shall I order a private room, sir? Why, no, Sam" (DICKENS). If I don't lie myself out of it again, why, then I will be content to be crucified (S. FOOTE); although why may also denote the delay of surprise: Why, I never heard this of him (ID.). h) There is a series of imitations of noises and sounds, not indeed so much expressions of subjective emotion as repetitions of outward affections of sense, but which often denote the former. Thus whew! is the term for a rushing, quick movement: Whew! how they tore along! (of horses) (DICKENS), Old-English with wehee! (CHAUCER). Whip, has been taken from the whip and its effect (Angl. hveop, flagellum), which also denotes the suddenness of an event: And whip! we were all off at an hour's warning (SHERIDAN). About an hour ago she was for scaling walls to come at me, and this minute whip, she's going to marry the stranger (COLLEY CIBBER). flac! flac! serves for the report of a whip. Pop! is used for suddenness (whence the verb to pop). Dash! stands near to pop (compare to dash), strengthened slap dash! at once. Rap! is the imitation of the sound or noise in striking: Rap! he gives me a stroke on the head with his cane (SHERIDAN Rivals). Similarly pat! is also used of clapping appearance: To hear her come pat, pat, pat, along in her slippers (COLLEY CIBBER). The report of a shot is expressed by boh: Lo, we fight. Boh! I kill him (SHERIDAN); the cracking and crackling. bounce!: Bounce! from the fire, a coffin flew (GAY). Old-English: I herd gunnis rushe out at ones Bowns, bowns, bowns (SKELTON I. 386.). Dub a dub has denoted from of old the beat of a drum, as also tantara! Dub a dub, Dub a dub, thus strike their drums Tantara, tantara, the Englishman comes (PERCY Rel. p. 146. II.). Thus too the tol de rol, else used of humming, seems sometimes to stand: Tol de rol, de rol halt! Stand to your arms (JAM. COBB.). Compare: Sing to de rol, and let her go (ID.). The fighthing step and noise is imitated by sa, sa, sa: A duel's but a dance to him: he has been at sa, sa, sa! for you already (COLLEY CIBBER). Compare: There's no tantara, sa, sa, sa, or force Of man to man (TAYLOR).

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The tolling of bells is denoted by ding, dong! (SHAKSPEARE Temp.), dialectically ting-tang! and bim, bom! as the beating of the clock is denoted by ding: Ding, ding, ding, ding! just four (DELAMOTTE). Other clapping and dashing is denoted by: clash! clang! tik, tak! and the like.

Singing to oneself is denoted by tum, tum, tum and tum, dum,

dum (COLLEY CIBBER), reading to oneself um, um! (ID.). Laughing is represented by ha, ha, ha! also ha, he! or hee, hea! and tehee! Old-English We te he! Compare: We te he! quoth Tib and lugh (PERCY Rel. p. 95. I.). And Annot . . laughes, tehe, wehe! (SKELTON I. 241.). Weeping is expressed by Colley Cibber with uh!

The language denotes a few voices of beasts by some agreement of sound, thus, dogs' barking by bow, wow (SHAKSP. Temp.), bough, waugh, waugh, waugh! (OTWAY); the bleating of sheep by baa! the cockerow by cock-a-doodle-doo (SHAKSP. Temp.), cock! cock! (CHAUCER); the note of rooks by caw, caw: Caw! caw! the rooks are calling (LONGFELLOW); of the lark by tirra, lirra (SHAKSP. Wint. Tale 4, 2.); the whoop of the owl by to-who, iu-whit, to-who (ID. Love's L. L. 5, 2.) and others, although the different dialects make distinctions, and poets often follow their individual apprehensions.

i) Finally, another class of words may here te mentioned, which arise from a play with the sounds, and partly in a picturesque manner make up for the image of the thing by the meaningless word. They mostly appear as notional words, and either represent the same verbal body twice rhymed with a difference of initial sound, or with a different accented vowel, without change of initial vowel, when a clear interchanges with an obscure vowel (especially i with a). In origin they lean partly on notional words, partly consist of meaningless syllables.

Here belong rhyming substantives: handy-dandy; hocus-pocus (from Ochus Bochus?); hoddy-doddy; hodge-podge and hotchpotch; hurly-burly; hugger-mugger; hurdy-gurdy; cagmag; kicksywicksey. Helter-skelter are commonly adverbial; higgledy-piggledy (compare higgler subst.); harum-scarum; harry-darry, as an exclamation (OTWAY); habnab (HUDIBR.) = at random; hoity-toity; hobnob, challenge to drink (take or do not take).

Repetitions with an alternating clear and obscure vowel are frequent: mizmaze (from maze); mish-mash; riff-raff; fidde faddle; fingle-fangle; flimflam; whimwham; tick-tack, sometimes used for tric-track; tittle-tattle; twittle-twattle; snip-snap (SHAKSP.); kit-cat, epithet of a club (after the pictures hanging there) is said to come from the proper name Kit (Christopher) Cat; knick-knack; gibblegabble; chit-chat, the same dingle-dangle = carelessly pendent; skimble-scamble &c.

ding-dong; tip-top; sing-song; slipslop; ninny-nonny; criss-cross. hip-hop.

see-saw; gew-gaw.

Many of these forms fluctuate between the interjection and the noun. They are mostly foreign to the more noble literature, familiar to common life, and denote particularly insignificant or blameable subjects, and are formations in which the popular fancy still roams at large and mocks etymology. Who would be able to point out the place in which the mixed stuff made of linen and wool was first named linsey-woolsey?

II. The formation of words.

A. Derivation.

The forming of words by derivation in the proper sense takes place by means of the addition of sounds, in themselves without meaning or obscured in regard to meaning, to the stem.

We may, however, also reckon as derivation that formation of words which is effected without the addition of sounds. It takes place in two manners; firstly, by a verbal stem, with one of the Vowels of the strong verbs which change the vowel, either within the same class of words or passing into another class, receiving an altered signification; secondly, by one and the same verbal body or part of speech passing immediately into another class of words and adopting its inflection. Both sorts may be called improper derivation.

A midde step between derivation and composition is made by those words in which a syllable, in itself significant, appears so far insignificant, as it is extinct as a word used independently, as -ald, -ard, -dom &c.

1) Improper Derivation..

a) The formation of words in connection with variation of sound, which is connected with the change of sound in strong verbs, (as to which the reduplicating classes of verbs are hardly considered, their change of vowel being mostly produced by reduplication,) is the foundation of families of words with a distinction of meaning. Proper derivation may be combined with the improper by means of a termination, when the latter at the same time expresses its effect, whereas a modification of the vowel has no influence upon the meaning. Compare Modern-Highdutch Saenger, MiddleHighdutch singer, from singen, sang.

This derivation concerns Germanic words only, and lies in the rear not only of the English, but partly even of the Anglosaxon tongue, many forms produced by a variation of sound referring to strong verbs which are no longer to be pointed out in Anglosaxon nor even in other Germanic idioms. In English these strong verbs are of course still more frequently absent. Compare broad, Anglosaxon brâd, Old-norse breida, expandere, to which an Anglosaxon bridan, not to be pointed out, would correspond; cram, Anglosaxon the same, Middle-Highdutch krimpfen, alongside whereof an absent Anglosaxon crimpan must have stood.

By changes in the vowel, details whereof are given under Phonetics, the relations of the variations of the vowel have been frequently dimmed in English. We give here by way of example some series of forms of verbs and nouns varying the vowel, attached to different classes of strong verbs.

To the first class of Anglosaxon verbs with the vowels i (eo, ë); a (ea), u; u (o) (compare vinnen

vann, vunnon

--

vunnen)

belong: stunt, Anglosaxon styntan, hebetare, from stintan, English stint. bend, band, bond, Anglosaxon bendan, Old-English band, Anglosaxon bend, from bindan, English bind. wend, Anglosaxon vendan, from vindan, English wind. brand, Anglosaxon brand, from beornan, byrnan, brinnan, English burn. drink, drench, Anglosaxon drine and drynce; drencan, from drincan, English drink. spring, Anglosaxon the same, from springan, English spring. string, strong, Anglosaxon string; strang (strong), from an assumed Anglosaxon stringan, Latin stringere. song, Anglosaxon sang (song), from singan, English sing; stench, Anglosaxon stenc, also stauc; stencan, from stinkan, English stink. ground, Anglosaxon grund, from grindan, English grind. foundling, from the Anglosaxon findan, English find.

To the second class of Anglosaxon verbs with the vowels i (eo, ë); a (ä), œ (â, é); u (o) (comp. bëran bär, bæron - boren) belong: birth, bare, bere, a sort of barley in Scotland, Engl. barley; bearn, bier (barrow), Anglosaxon beord; bär; bere; bearn; bær, from beran, beoran, English bear. tale, Anglosaxon talu, from the assumed telan, whence tellan alone remains. sale, Old-English sala, with which only the verb sellan still agrees. hollow, Anglosaxon hol, from hëlan, tegere.

To the third class of Anglosaxon verbs with the vowels (eo, ë); ä (ea), œ (ed); i, ë, (compare biddan - bäd, bædon - bëden) the following are to reckoned: bed, Anglosaxon bedd from biddan, humi prosterni. trode, Anglosaxon trôd, from trëdan, English tread. set, Anglosaxon settan, settle, Anglosaxon sitel, sëtel; sunset, Anglosaxon siot, sët, occasus, from sittan, English sit. lay, Anglosaxon lecgan, from licgan, English lie. speech, Anglosaxon spræc, spæc, from sprecan, English speak. stick, stake, stock, Anglosaxon sticca; staca; stocc, from Anglosaxon stëcan. Compare English stick.

To the fourth class of Anglosaxon verbs with the vowels a, ea (e); ô, ô; a, ea (a) (compare standan stôd, stôdon standen) are attached: step. staple, Anglosaxon stepë; steppan; stapul, from stapan, gradi. *) fare, Anglosaxon fär, far, and faru, iter, from faran, English fare. grave, Anglosaxon gräf, from grafan, English grave and the like.

To the fifth class of Anglosaxon verbs with the vowels ; ô, i; i (compare bîtan bât, bîton biten) are attached: drive. drove, Anglosaxon drâf, from drîfan, English drive. shrove, shrift, Anglosaxon scrift, from scrîfan, English shrive. bit, bite, bait, bitter, Anglosaxon bit; bîte; bât, biter, from bîtan, English bite. lid, Anglosaxon hlið, hlid, from hliðan, hlîdan, togene. **) ride, road, Anglosaxon râd, iter, from rîdan, English ride; raise, rear. arouse, Anglosaxon râsjan, ræran, from rîsan, English rise. wroth, Anglosaxon vrâð, from vridan, torquere, English writhe. strike, stroke,

*) The parallelism of logical development in mercare, French marcher, on the one hand, and step, staple, on the other, is noteworthy; also that the course of development is reversed, the root notion being marketing in the former, and going in the latter.

**) Comp. clothe &c.

Mätzner, engl. Gr. I.

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