Brutus. Antonius replied, that he would deal with Brutus himself, and then would join Cæsar. While Antonius was pursuing Brutus, he was joined by Asinius Pollio with two legions. Pollio brought about a reconciliation between Antonius and Plancus, who joined Antonius with three legions. D. Brutus was not a match for the increased force of Antonius, and he at first attempted to make his way to M. Brutus in Macedonia; but his soldiers deserted to Antonius and Cæsar, and he was at last left with ten companions. While attempting to make his escape in the disguise of a Celt, he was taken near Aquileia by some robbers, whose chief informed Antonius of the capture. Antonius told the

Cæsar knew his power, and he only laughed at his enemies. He brought his forces into the Campus Martius, and he showed all through these trying circumstances the most perfect self-possession and prudence. Those who had taken the most active part against him were allowed to be unmolested: they were spared for the present. He distributed a large sum of money among his soldiers, and he soon paid the legacies which the Dictator had left to the people. In conformity to law, Cæsar left the city during the election, by which he and Quintus Pedius, his kinsman, were appointed consuls for the rest of the year. The election took place in the month of August, B.C. 43, when Cæsar was in his twentieth year. Being now invested with constitutional authority, he caused his adoption to be regularly confirmed by a Lex Curiata. He also caused a measure to be passed for the relief of Dolabella, who had been declared an enemy; and in pursuance of a Lex which was proposed by his colleague Pedius, a regular prosecution was instituted against the assassins of Caesar and their accomplices. The prosecution was conducted in due legal form, and as none of the accused appeared, they were convicted pursuant to law. Thus the conspirators were in effect declared enemies of the Roman State, and there remained nothing but to enforce the sentence by arms. But to accomplish this, Cæsar wanted the aid of Antonius. Accordingly he left the city and advanced towards Cisalpine Gaul, while his colleague Pedius stayed at Rome to further his views. The senate were induced by their fears to come to terms with Antonius and Lepidus, though they saw that the union of Antonius and Cæsar, which was now contemplated, would cause the ruin of their own partisans, M. Brutus and Cassius. But they were helpless, and they yielded: they repealed their own decrees by which Antonius and Lepidus had been declared enemies, and they sent a friendly message to Antonius and Lepidus. Cæsar also wrote to Antonius, and offered his assistance against Decimus

he looked at it, and ordered it to be buried. D. Brutus was the second of the Dictator's assassins who came to a violent end: Trebonius, who perished in Asia, was the first.

Cæsar, Antonius, and Lepidus had an interview in an island on a small stream near Bononia (Bologna). They agreed that Ventidius should take the place of Cæsar as consul for the rest of the year, B.C. 43; that the three should administer the state for five years with equal powers with the consuls; and that they should name the annual magistrates for five years to come. It was also agreed to distribute the provinces among them: Antonius was to have all Gaul, except a part adjacent to the Pyrenees, which Lepidus was to have, together with Spain; Cæsar was to have Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily and the small adjacent islands. Cæsar and Antonius were to conduct the war against M. Brutus and Cassius, and Lepidus was to be consul, and conduct the administration in Rome with three of his legions. The remaining seven were to be distributed between Cæsar and Antonius so as to make up their numbers to twenty legions each. It was further agreed to encourage their soldiers by promises of donations and of the distribution of the lands of eighteen cities in Italy, which were named. Finally, it was agreed that all their enemies at Rome should be destroyed, that there might be no further danger from them. The terms of this agreement were read to the soldiers, who were well content; but nothing was said of the intended massacres.

In order to secure the union of the two chief leaders, the soldiers of Antonius also planned a marriage between Cæsar and Clodia, the daughter of Fulvia by Clodius: Fulvia was now the wife of Antonius, who is supposed to have urged the soldiers to make this proposition. Cæsar was already betrothed to Servilia; but he broke off that engagement, and from motives of policy agreed to take Clodia for his wife. Clodia was yet very young, and Cæsar divorced her shortly after, without having consummated the marriage.

When great calamities threatened the state, the Roman historians always speak of prog

nostications of the coming evil. So it was now. Wolves howled through the Forum; a cow spoke with a human voice; there was the clatter of arms, unusual signs in the sun, showers of stones, thunder and lightning. The omens portended dreadful calamities; but the calamities were greater than the omens. The Triumviri, as the three were called, made a list of three hundred senators and about two thousand equites, who were to be put to death. The list contained even kinsmen of the Triumviri, for each had private enemies that he wished to get rid of, who were the friends and relations of the others. They also wanted money for the campaign against M. Brutus and Cassius, and accordingly some were proscribed merely because they were rich; and at last, when money was still wanting, heavy contributions were levied on the commonalty and on rich women. The Triumviri sent orders for the death of a small number of the most distinguished of their enemies before they reached Rome, and Cicero was among them. Some of them were immediately massacred, and alarm spread through the city; but Pedius, the consul, calmed the fears of the citizens by publishing the names of those who were to be proscribed, and declaring that these were to be the only sufferers. But Pedius was not in the secret of his colleagues, and he died before the Triumviri reached Rome.

The Triumviri entered Rome separately, each with his prætorian cohort and a legion: the city was filled with soldiers. A law was hurriedly passed by which Cæsar, Antonius, and Lepidus were invested with consular power for five years, for the purpose of settling affairs, and thus the Triumvirate was constituted in legal form. In the following night a list of one hundred and thirty persons, who were proscribed, was set up in many parts of the city; and a hundred and fifty more were soon added to the list. Notice was given that the heads should be brought to the Triumviri, and the bearer was to have a fixed reward; if a freeman, money; if a slave, his liberty and money too. Rewards were offered to those who should discover the proscribed, and the penalty for concealing them was death. The preamble to the proscription list is given by Appian (Bell. Civ. iv. 8), as well as he could turn it from Latin into Greek. It is an apology for the measure, founded on the alleged guilt and ingratitude of the proscribed, the murderers of the Dictator Cæsar, who had shown them his clemency: it speaks of treacherous designs against the Triumviri, and of their moderation in punishing only the most guilty. Lepidus was foremost in this affair, though Cæsar and Antonius were the most unrelenting after a beginning was made: Dion Cassius, however, acquits Cæsar of much of the guilt of the proscription. As soon as the lists were published, the gates

of the city were closed, and all the outlets and places of refuge were strictly watched. And then came a scene of misery such as had not been witnessed even in the times of Marius and of Sulla. Men hid themselves in drains and privies, or in the tiles of roofs and in chimneys. Old grudges, that had long slumbered, now revived, and men took this opportunity of getting rid of their enemies many perished who were not on the lists. Slaves betrayed their masters, children their parents, and wives their husbands. Some prayed for mercy, but in vain; others met their death with fortitude, and a few made a desperate resistance. Every avenue in the city and all the country round Rome was scoured by soldiers eager to earn the rich reward by carrying heads to the Triumviri. But there were also instances of generous friendship and devoted affection, of slaves who saved their masters, of children who died with their parents, of wives who would not survive their husbands. All the enemies of the Triumviri who were unfortunate enough to be found, were sacrificed to their vengeance. The tribune Salvius, a personal enemy of Antonius, had his head cut off while he was sitting at his own table with his guests. But the man whom Antonius had most cause to hate was Cicero, who was overtaken in his flight, and his head was literally sawed from his shoulders by the clumsiness of his executioner, Popillius Læna, whose cause Cicero had once successfully pleaded. His hands and head were carried to Rome, and fixed up on the Rostra, the scene of his harangues. Many of those who escaped were drowned at sea, but some reached Sicily, where they were kindly received by Sextus Pompeius, the son of the Dictator's great rival.

Sicily, which had fallen to the share of Cæsar in the distribution of the Western provinces, was held by Sextus Pompeius, who had a well-manned fleet. Cæsar sent his admiral Salvidienus Rufus against Sicily, and went to Rhegium, where he met Salvidienus. A severe battle took place in the strait, in which the loss was about equal on both sides. Giving up Sicily for the present, Cæsar sailed to Brundisium, whence he crossed over to Dyrrachium to join Antonius. M. Brutus and Cassius had now advanced from Asia as far as Philippi in Macedonia, where they heard that Antonius was approaching, and that Cæsar had fallen ill and was detained at Dyrrachium. Cæsar arrived before the battle, though he was still feeble. In the first of the two engagements at Philippi, Cassius killed himself, thinking that all was lost; and in the second Brutus was defeated, and put an end to his life. Many of their soldiers joined the armies of Cæsar and Antonius. This decisive victory, which broke the senatorial party, was mainly due to the courage and

generalship of Antonius.

The battle of Philippi was fought about the close of B.C. 42. A large body of the army of Brutus and Cassius capitulated to Cæsar and Antonius. Many of those who had been concerned in the Dictator's death fell by their own hand: Livius Drusus, the father of the future wife of Cæsar, killed himself in his tent. Suetonius says that Cæsar behaved with great cruelty, and used insulting language towards the most illustrious of the prisoners. The head of Brutus was sent to Rome to be placed at the foot of Cæsar's statue, but it was thrown into the sea on the voyage.

A new division of the provinces was now made. Cæsar and Antonius arranged matters their own way, and took from Lepidus what had been given to him. Antonius set out to the East to collect money; Cæsar returned to Italy to superintend the distribution of the promised lands among the soldiers.

Cæsar fell ill at Brundisium, and a report reached Rome that he was dead. Having somewhat recovered, he came to Rome, and produced letters of Antonius, pursuant to which Calenus, who held two legions in Italy for Antonius, gave them up to Cæsar, and Sextius was ordered by the friends of Antonius to give up Africa to Cæsar, which Casar gave to Lepidus. The soldiers who had served under Cæsar and Antonius were now impatient for their rewards, and they claimed the lands which had been specifically promised. The occupiers (possessores) urged that they ought not to be the only sufferers, and that all Italy should contribute. But the promised lands were given to the soldiers, and they were established as military colonies in due form. Thousands were driven from their homes, and many of the ejected cultivators fled to Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. Rome also was crowded with them: they came to complain of the hardship of their lot; young and old, women and their children, filled the public places and the temples with their lamentations. Cæsar could only tell them that they must submit to necessity; the soldiers must be satisfied. But he knew that what was promised would not be enough for them, and that they would take more than was given. These soldiers were not restrained by the strict discipline of the Roman army. Many of them were mere adventurers who had joined Cæsar or Antonius to support their cause, and they were not, nor did they consider themselves as the soldiers of the republic. They knew that they were necessary to their commanders, and presuming on their power, they abused it. Accordingly many persons were driven out of their possessions who had the misfortune to live near the lands which were assigned to the soldiers, and Cæsar allowed this licence to pass unpunished. The sufferers were loud in their

complaints against him, but he looked steadily at one object, to secure the favour of his soldiers. His prudence and firmness stopped a mutiny at Rome which threatened dangerous consequences.

In the year B.C. 41 the consuls were Publius Servilius and Lucius Antonius, one of the brothers of Marcus. But Lucius, and Fulvia, the wife of Marcus, who was left by her husband in Italy, really directed the administration. Lucius and Fulvia were jealous of the popularity which Cæsar was gaining with the troops by being the dispenser of rewards; and Cæsar, who could not bear the woman's insolence, sent back her daughter Clodia, with a solemn assurance that she was still a virgin, though she had been for some time in his house. They claimed the nomination of the commissioners who should conduct the soldiers of Antonius to their new settlements; and though the agreement between Antonius and Cæsar left the distribution of lands with Cæsar, he yielded from motives of prudence; for the remembrance of Philippi was fresh, and that victory was attributed to Antonius. The commissioners who were appointed to assign lands to the soldiers of Antonius allowed even greater licence than Cæsar had done, and men complained that the military colonies were worse than the proscription. Cæsar knew that great wrong was done, but he had no money to compensate those who were ejected, and a war was impending with Sextus Pompeius, who was master of the sea, and by shutting out the supplies of corn was threatening Rome with famine. Dion Cassius states that Antonius and Fulvia, seeing the great dissatisfaction caused by the measures of Cæsar, took up the part of the ejected possessors, and that they did not assign any lands to the soldiers of Antonius, but gave them promises instead. This history of the assignment of lands to the soldiers requires a particular investigation.

Lucius Antonius, the consul, and Fulvia, now made an effort to destroy Cæsar. Fulvia had also hopes that a war might bring back her husband, who was enslaved by Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt. Cæsar was supported by M. Agrippa, and by Salvidienus, who advanced from Spain, and joined him with six legions. After some unsuccessful movements on the part of Lucius Antonius, he threw himself with his forces into the strong city of Perusia, which Cæsar and his generals blockaded. The place was obstinately defended, but famine at last compelled a surrender, B.C. 40. Cæsar was inclined to punish the young recruits who had assisted in the defence of Perusia, and to pardon the veterans who had served under Marcus Antonius, but he saw that he could not safely punish, and he did not attempt it. Lucius was pardoned; but three or four hundred captives, for the numbers vary, among whom were the Decuriones of Perusia, were put to death. It is told

The capture of Perusia dispersed the adherents of Marcus Antonius, and they fled from Italy. Fulvia with her children escaped to Brundisium, whence she crossed over into Greece. Among the fugitives from Italy were Tiberius Claudius Nero, and his wife Livia Drusilla, and their infant child Tiberius. Livia shortly after became the wife of Cæsar, and Tiberius was his adopted son, and his successor.

Antonius left Alexandria in the spring of B.C. 40. On his route to Athens he heard of the affair of Perusia, and he blamed both his brother and his wife Fulvia. On reaching Athens, he found Fulvia there, and his mother Julia, who was attended by Lucius Scribonius Libo and others. Antonius was urged to unite with Sextus Pompeius against Cæsar, but he professed his unwillingness to commence such a contest, if Cæsar would abide by their agreement.

Italy being now clear, Cæsar again thought of attacking Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, but having no ships, and learning what the force of Pompeius was, he took another course. He knew that some of his enemies had fled to Antonius to Athens, but he did not know what was doing there. Accordingly he commissioned Mæcenas to negotiate a marriage for him with Scribonia, the sister of Lucius Scribonius Libo, who was the father-in-law of Sextus Pompeius. Libo consented, and Cæsar took for wife Scribonia, a woman much older than himself, who had already had two husbands. Many Roman ladies had been proposed to him as suitable matches, but he foresaw that there might be a contest with Antonius, and he wished to prepare the way for a reconciliation with Pompeius.

M. Antonius left his wife Fulvia ill at Sicyon. He had not a large army with him, but he entered the Ionian Sea with two hundred vessels, where he met with and received the submission of the fleet of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who had been an adherent of Brutus and Cassius. The combined fleet came to Brundisium, but it was occupied by troops of Cæsar, who refused to receive Ahenobarbus, as being one of the conspirators against Cæsar, and an enemy, and they refused to receive Antonius because he brought Ahenobarbus with him. Antonius immediately blockaded Brundisium, and sent for Sextus Pompeius to join him. Pompeius sent Menodorus, who is also called Menas, with a strong force to Antonius, and also seized Sardinia, which belonged to Cæsar, and gained over two legions which were in the island. Caesar, seeing the position of affairs, sent Agrippa into Apulia, and, following with a

near Brundisium. The soldiers of Cæsar wished to effect a reconciliation between him and Antonius, which was accomplished mainly through the intervention of Cocceius, a common friend, and was facilitated by the arrival of the news of Fulvia's death. Antonius had left her ill at Sicyon, and went off without seeing her. As a preliminary step to the negotiations, Antonius was induced by his mother to send Pompeius back to Sicily, who had come to his aid, and to dismiss Ahenobarbus, whom he appointed governor of Bithynia. It was then agreed that Antonius and Cæsar should again be friends, and that the sister of Cæsar, Octavia, who had just become a widow by the death of her husband Marcellus, should marry Antonius. There were great rejoicings in both armies on this occasion. A new division of the provinces was made between Cæsar and Antonius: all to the west of Scodra, a town of Illyricum, was to be administered by Cæsar; Antonius was to have all to the east of Scodra; Lepidus was to keep Africa, which Cæsar had given him; and Cæsar was to be allowed to prosecute the war against Pompeius if he chose. Antonius and Cæsar entered Rome, and the marriage of Antonius with Octavia was celebrated. Antonius took the opportunity of putting to death Manius, on the ground of his having urged on Fulvia to the war with Cæsar, and brought about the calamities of the siege of Perusia; and Cæsar being informed by Antonius of the treachery of Salvidienus Rufus, who had offered to join Antonius at Brundisium, sent for him from Gaul, on the pretence that he wished to employ him on some business. As soon as Salvidienus came to Rome, Cæsar charged him with his offence before the senate, and Salvidienus was either put to death, or anticipated the executioner by his own hand.

Rome was still afflicted with famine, and the usual supplies of grain did not come. Pompeius, who was in Sicily, stopped all approach to the city from the east, and his partisans, who held Sardinia and Corsica, allowed no vessels to come from the west. The famine and the attempt to raise money by heavy taxation caused great riots in the city, and Caesar, who attempted to pacify the populace, was pelted with stones and wounded. Antonius, who came out to them, was at first better received, but he was at last pelted also, upon which he sent for a detachment of the soldiers who were outside of the walls, and fell on the rioters in the narrow streets leading to the forum. Antonius probably saved the life of Cæsar on this occasion. The dead bodies were thrown into the Tiber. The riots were put down by this massacre the famine got to its height, and the people suffered, but they were quiet. At last, Cæsar and Antonius went to Baia