Dion for his leaving the city, but the main object was to superintend warlike operations against the Germans, who had defeated Marcus Lollius. Statilius was the governor of Rome and Italy in his absence. The Rhæti, an Alpine people, were subdued by Tiberius and Drusus, the stepsons of Augustus: and many colonies were established or restored in Gaul and Spain. These were principally military colonies, and the lands were given to satisfy the claims of the old soldiers, who were continually asking for grants. Augustus returned from Gaul in the year 13, and gave to the senate a written account of his proceedings. In this year, according to Dion, Augustus dedicated the theatre of Marcellus, and games were celebrated, in which six hundred wild beasts from Africa were slaughtered. The year 12 is that in which Lepidus died, and Augustus succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus: Agrippa also died in this year, and in the following year his widow Julia was married to Tiberius, the stepson of Augustus. Tiberius was obliged by Augustus to put away his wife Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Agrippa by a former marriage, though she had borne him a son and was with child at the time, and though he was much attached to her. Augustus compelled him to take Julia, for reasons of policy, though Tiberius disliked her, and was already aware of her profligate habits. The new bridegroom was sent off to fight against the Pannonians, whom he defeated, and the marriage was solemnized on his return. In this year Octavia, the sister of Augustus, died, a woman whose life was free from reproach, and whose virtues entitle her to be ranked among the illustrious Roman mothers. It is a pleasing feature in the mingled character of Augustus that he loved his sister. In B.C. 10 Augustus was again in Gaul with his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius. Drusus also prosecuted the war against the Germans in this and the following year. He advanced as far as the Elbe, but his career was cut short by a fall from his horse, which occasioned his death. His body was carried to Rome, and Augustus pronounced his funeral oration in the Circus Flaminius: he also wrote an epitaph for his tomb and composed a memoir of his life. In the year 8 the second term of ten years expired: Augustus, with a show of unwillingness, accepted the administration again; and this year is recorded as that in which the month Sextilis received the name of Augustus, which it retains. In this year also a census was taken. Tiberius now conducted the military operations on the Rhine. Two more of the friends of Augustus died this year, Mæcenas and the poet Horace. Maecenas had for many years been his faithful friend and adviser, and had been intrusted with the important office of Præfectus Urbi. It was believed in Rome that Augustus, 147 among his other amours, had an adulterous commerce with Terentia, the wife of Mæcenas, which caused her husband some vexation, but it never made him break with Augustus, and he left him the bulk of his immense fortune. Tiberius received the title of Imperator for his German victories, and in the year 6 he received the Tribunitian power for five years; but instead of staying at Rome, he retired to Rhodes, where he resided seven years, mainly perhaps through jealousy of Caius and Lucius Cæsar, the adopted sons of Augustus, who conducted themselves in a haughty and insolent manner; perhaps too to get rid of his wife, for he certainly left her behind. In the year B.C. 4, or according to perhaps the best authorities, in the year B.C. 3, Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem in Judæa. Some chronologists place this event in the year B.C. 2. The year B.C. 2 was the thirteenth consulship of Augustus, and in this year L. Cæsar received the toga virilis: Caius, the elder, had taken it in B.C. 5. Thus Augustus had now two grandsons, his sons by adoption, who had attained the age of puberty, and he had a prospect of securing in his family the succession to a greater power than any man had ever yet acquired. But his happiness was marred by the conduct of his daughter Julia, the mother of his adopted sons. In the lifetime of Agrippa she had perhaps not been a faithful wife, but now in the thirty-eighth year of her age she had broken through all the bounds of decency and prudence. Her indignant father could hardly restrain himself when he ascertained the extent of her degradation. Many of her lovers were put to death, and among them Antonius Iulus, a son of M. Antonius by Fulvia. Julia was banished to the small island of Pandataria, on the coast of Campania, and afterwards to Rhegium, where she lived a life of misery, and yet survived her father. Her mother Scribonia, the long-divorced wife of Augustus, voluntarily accompanied Julia in her exile. This matter is often spoken of in such terms as would lead a reader to suppose that Augustus in these and like cases acted according to his pleasure; whereas that would be entirely inconsistent with the administration of justice at that period. Julia and some of her paramours and accomplices came within the penalties of the Lex Julia on adultery, which was passed about B.c. 18 or 17, and probably before the "Carmen Sæculare" of Horace was written. They were accordingly banished. Those who were put to death suffered on the additional charge of a treasonable design, as shown by their cohabiting with a member of the family of Augustus; probably a mere pretext to get rid of them, but enough to prove that the forms of law were observed. Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus, his daughter's daughter, who was married to L. L 2 Emilius Paullus, followed her mother's example, and suffered a similar punishment (A.D. 8). in life; and if they did, he added, give me then your applause. He died while he was kissing Livia, and telling her to remember their union. An accomplished actor undoubtedly he was, and he played a great part. A rumour that he was poisoned by his wife has been preserved by the historians, but not the slightest evidence is alleged in confirmation of it. By his will he left Livia and Tiberius his heirs. The ceremonial of his funeral and the accompanying events belong to the period of his successor Tiberius, the commencement of whose reign is intimately connected with the close of the reign of Augustus. In this imperfect sketch some facts have been stated without any limitations, which in a history would require a careful examination. Of all periods this is one of the most eventful, and of all perhaps the most fruitful in consequences, for it is the period in which was consolidated that system of government and administration which has determined the character of European civilization. It is remarkable also for the personal history of the man, which, from the battle of Actium, comprised a period of near forty-four years, and from the time of his landing at Brundisium in B.C. 44, a period of fifty-seven. In A.D. 1 Caius Cæsar was sent to conduct the war in Armenia, and Tiberius came from his retirement as far as Chios to pay his respects to the adopted son of Augustus. But the time was near when the son of Livia was to become the representative of the Cæsars. Lucius Cæsar died at Massilia, in A.D. 2, shortly after Tiberius had returned to Rome, a favour which he had obtained with the consent of Caius, and which was probably one motive for this wily politician going so far to see him. Caius died in Lycia, on his return from Armenia, in A.D. 4, and Augustus, who in the year preceding had accepted the administration for another decennial period, now adopted Tiberius as his son, and associated him in the Tribunitian power for ten years. At the same time he compelled Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus, though Tiberius had a son of his own. Tiberius was sent to conduct the military operations on the German frontier: the details of these events belong to his life. After a successful campaign, Tiberius returned to Rome, in A.D. 9, the same year in which Ovid was banished Augustus was a man of middle stature, or from Rome, most probably for his licentious rather below it, but well made. The expoetry, which would bring him within the pression of his handsome face was that of unpenalties of the Lex Julia on adultery. The varying tranquillity; his eyes were large, success of Tiberius and the laurels won by bright, and piercing; his hair a lightish his adopted son Germanicus in this year and yellow; and his nose somewhat aquiline. the preceding, were overcast by the news of The profound serenity of his expression and the defeat of Quintilius Varus and the de- the noble character of his features are shown struction of his army. [ARMINIUS.] This by his gems and medals. He was temperate was the greatest reverse which Augustus sus- even to abstinence in eating and drinking, tained in the long course of his administra- and he thus attained a great age, though he tion. The war on the German frontier con- was of a feeble constitution; but though a tinued, and in A.D. 12 Tiberius enjoyed a rigid father, and a strict guardian of public triumph for his victories. In A.D. 13 Au- morals, he is accused of incontinence. He gustus for the fifth time accepted the ad- was fond of simple amusements, and of chilministration of the empire for ten years. He dren's company. In all his habits he was had now lived long enough to see all his methodical, an economizer of time, and direct male descendants die, except one averse to pomp and personal display. He grandson, Agrippa Postumus, a youth of un- generally left the city and entered it by promising disposition, who was sent into night, to avoid being seen. The master of banishment. [AGRIPPA POSTUMUS.] But so many legions-he who directed the admiClaudius, the son, and Caligula, the grand-nistration of an empire which extended from son of his stepson Drusus, were already born, and both of them became in time his unworthy successors. Even Vespasian, the eighth in the series of the Roman Cæsars, was born in the lifetime of Augustus. In A.D. 14 Augustus held the third census, with the assistance of Tiberius. He had for some time been in feeble health. In the summer of this year, after superintending the celebration of some games at Naples, he retired to Nola, where he died on the 19th of August, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and in the same room in which his father had died. Feeling his end near, he called his friends together, and asked them if they thought he had played his part well the Euphrates to the Pillars of Hercules, and from the Libyan Desert to the German Ocean-lived in a house of moderate size, without splendour or external show. His ordinary dress was made by the hands of his wife, his daughter, and his grand-daughters. The young women were kept under a strict discipline, and their conduct every day was carefully registered in a book. He assisted in the education of his grandsons and adopted sons Caius and Lucius. From his youth he had practised oratory, and was well acquainted with the learning of his day. Though a ready speaker, he never addressed the senate, the popular assemblies, or the soldiers without preparation, and it was his general practice to read his speeches. He was a man of unwearied industry, a great reader, and a diligent writer. He drew up memoirs of his own life, in thirteen books, which comprised the period up to the Cantabrian war, and also various other works in prose. He also wrote a poem in hexameter verse, entitled "Sicilia," and a book of Epigrams, some of which are extant, and are very obscene. His Latin style, as appears from the few specimens which are extant, was simple and energetic, like his character; he disliked trivial thoughts and far-fetched words, and his object was always to express his meaning in the clearest possible way. Accordingly, he never scrupled to add prepositions when perspicuity required it, or to repeat conjunctions. His biographer Suetonius, who had inspected many of his manuscripts, which were preserved to the time of Hadrian, gives many interesting particulars about them. The historians and writers of memoirs had ample materials even in the papers which Augustus left in his own handwriting, and the minuteness of many of the particulars of his life may be depended on for their accuracy. But the malice of his enemies has also preserved many anecdotes, which are at least of doubtful credit. Besides his will, which was partly written by his own hand, he left three or four large manuscripts sealed. They contained directions for his funeral, a recapitulation of all his I. acts, and a view of the resources of the empire. This last and the most important of them comprehended a complete enumeration of the military and naval force of the empire, and of the kingdoms within its limits which still existed, a statement of the whole revenue and expenditure, all written out with his own hand, and advice as to keeping the empire within its actual limits. The contents of the manuscript which contained his acts, he ordered to be cut on bronze plates, and to be placed in front of the Mausoleum at Rome, in which he was interred. The "Monumentum Ancyranum" is a copy of this important document. Augustus left to his successor an empire regulated like a wellordered household. The chief friends and advisers of Augustus were Agrippa, Mæcenas, and Asinius Pollio. During his administration Rome was much improved by buildings both for ornament and utility. The sewers were increased and repaired, the supply of water was made most abundant, the city had a police under the præfectus urbi, and regulations were made for extinguishing fires. A fleet was maintained at Ravenna, and one at Misenum; and the seas were kept clear of pirates. Though there was war on the frontiers, the body of the empire was tranquil,_and_the merchant sailed in safety from Egypt to Rome. The world never before enjoyed so long a period of peace. It is not certain whether Octavia the elder or the younger was the mother of M. Marcellus. + Tacitus, Annal. iv, 44, and xii, 64, makes the younger Antonia the wife of this Domitius. But see the note of Lipsius, Tacit. Annal. xiií. I. 2. Marcella, the elder, No. I. 3. Julia, daughter of Augustus, No. II. By whom she was probably the mother of L. and M. Silanus, No. I. The age of Augustus is a brilliant period in the history of Rome. There were the lawyers M. Antistius Labeo and C. Ateius Capito; the poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and others; and the historian Livy. The literary remains of Augustus were published by J. A. Fabricius, Hamburg, 1727, 4to. The annexed table shows the various descendants of Julia, the sister of the Dictator Cæsar, down to the Emperor Nero, who left no children. The Dictator had only a daugh- | ter, and she died childless. The relationship of the various members of the family of Augustus is very complicated, but it is necessary to understand it well in studying the history of his period. The preceding tables by Lipsius show the relationship of all the members of the Octavian, Antonian, Julian, and other Gentes who were connected with the family of Augustus. There are some difficulties about a few names; but they are of no importance. (Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus, ed. Orelli; Suetonius, Augustus; Dion Cassius, lib. xlv.—lvi.; Appian, Civil Wars, ii.-v., and Illyrica; Cicero, Letters and Philippics; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 59—124; Tacitus, Annal. i.; Monumentum Ancyranum, in Oberlin's Tacitus or the editions of Suetonius; Plutarch, Antonius; Clinton, Fasti Hellenici; Rasche, Lexicon Rei Numaria; Eckhel, Doctrina Num. Vet. vols. vi. viii.) G. L. AUGUSTUS, Duke of Saxony, and last Archbishop of MAGDEBURG, the second son of John George I., Elector of Saxony, and Magdalena Sibylla, daughter of Albrecht Frederick, Duke of Prussia, of the house of Brandenburg, was born at Dresden on the 13th of August, 1614. At the age of twelve he was chosen by the chapter of Magdeburg coadjutor to the Archbishop of Magdeburg, Christian William, Margrave of Brandenburg (8th of December, 1625), who was deposed by the chapter in 1628 on the ground of having made war upon the Emperor Ferdinand II., as an ally of King Christian IV. of Denmark. But the real cause of his deposition was the fear of the chapter that the Emperor, encouraged by his victories over the Danes and their allies among the Protestant German princes, would drive Christian William out, and impose upon them a Roman Catholic bishop in the person of his second son, the Archduke Leopold William, the consequence of which would have been the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic religion in that bishopric. In order to prevent that danger, the chapter, immediately after the deposition of Christian William, chose prince Augustus archbishop, alleging that, as he was already coadjutor, they could not conveniently choose any other individual. But the real motive was the hope that the Emperor would not make any objection to his election, because he was the son of the Elector of Saxony, the most power | ful among the German princes, with whom, although he was a Protestant, the Emperor was on terms of friendship and alliance. The chapter was deceived. Misled by fanatical counsellors and Jesuits, and confident in the victorious arms of Tilly and Wallenstein, the Emperor issued the famous "Edictum Restitutionis " (1629), which was calculated to wrest from the Protestant princes so many bishoprics which were once Roman Catholic, and other ecclesiastical territories, where the Protestant religion was then established, and of which their younger sons were chosen bishops and abbots. The Emperor consequently declared himself against the election of Augustus, whom he contrived to deprive of his episcopal dignity by means of the Pope. The Emperor's son Leopold William was chosen archbishop, the Protestant canons and deans having 'first been driven out and replaced by Roman Catholics. Count Wolf of Mansfeld was appointed by the Emperor governor of the bishopric for his son, and the Roman Catholic religion was in a fair way to be forced upon all the inhabitants. Tilly occupied the country with the imperial army, and the city of Magdeburg, which was not under the bishop's authority, having refused to receive an imperial garrison, was besieged by him, and finally taken and destroyed. The King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, had endeavoured to prevent the unfortunate fate of that rich and populous city, but his alliance with the Elector of Brandenburg being not yet concluded, he could not assist Magdeburg in time; however, soon after the fall of that city, he approached it with his main army, obliged Tilly to evacuate the bishopric and to fall back upon Leipzig, and in the environs of that town defeated him in a decisive battle (7th of September, 1631). The bishopric of Magdeburg being thus conquered by Gustavus Adolphus, who, according to his proclamation, had taken up arms not only for the defence of the Protestant faith, but also for the protection of the Protestant princes, it was supposed that he would restore it to its legitimate sovereign Augustus; but he kept it for himself, and appointed Prince Louis of Anhalt-Dessau governor of it. The Swedes remained in possession of Magdeburg till they lost the great battle of Nördlingen (19th of August, 1634). Their defeat led to a separate peace between the Emperor and the Elector of Saxony, which was concluded at Prague, on the 20th of May, 1635, in which it was stipulated that Augustus should be recognised as Archbishop of Magdeburg. The Elector, however, was obliged to take the bishopric by force from the Swedes, and it was not until 1638 that Augustus received the homage of the chapter and states of Magdeburg. No sooner was he in possession than he was driven out again by the Swedes: he retook and lost it several times more, till |