degree noble and estimable, comprehending the virtues of humanity, magnanimity, liberality, patience under insult, and forgiveness of injuries. With respect to his intellectual qualities, he is described as being possessed of a powerful reason, a clear understanding, and an acute mind; and altogether (bating his irreligion, if the charge be true) he deserves to be ranked among the most illustrious characters of his own or any other age or country. 66 The works of Averroes were very numerous, no less than seventy-eight being enumerated in a MS. in the Escurial library (cod. 879); they treated also of very different subjects (theology, philosophy, logic, law, natural history, medicine, &c.). The titles of the greater part of these may be found in Wüstenfeld's " Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher," § 191, and Gayangos' Appendix to his translation of Al-makkarí, vol. i. p. xx. &c.; but only those will be noticed here which have been published either in a Latin or Hebrew transÏation, none of them (it is believed) having ever appeared in the original Arabic. A collected edition of his works was published in a Latin version, chiefly made by Jacob Mantinus, a Jewish physician, together with a Latin translation of Aristotle's works, in eleven volumes, folio, at Venice, by the Juntas, 1552, &c. The First volume contains Expositio in Librum Porphyrii Introductio," ("An Exposition of Porphyry's Introduction to Logic,") published for the first time; 66 Expositio in Aristotelis Prædicamenta," ("An Exposition of the Categories of Aristotle,") published for the first time; Expositio in Aristotelis Libros De Interpretatione," ("An Exposition of Aristotle's books on Interpretation,") now first published; "Media Expositio in Aristotelis Libros Priorum Resolutoriorum," ("The Intermediate (?) Exposition of the Prior Analytics of Aristotle;") "Expositio Maxima, seu Magna Commentaria, in Aristotelis Librum De Demonstratione," ("The Great Commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics;") "Expositio Media in eosdem Aristotelis Posteriorum Resolutoriorum Libros," ("The Intermediate (?) Exposition of the Posterior Analytics of Aristotle;") "Expositio Media in Aristotelis Octo Libros Topicorum," ("The Intermediate (?) Exposition of the Topics of Aristotle ;") "Expositio Media in Aristotelis Libros Duos Elenchorum," ("The Intermediate Exposition of Aristotle's Sophistical Elenchi;") "Epitome in Libros Logica Aristotelis," ("An Epitome of Aristotle's Logic") (which was translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Jacob Ben Simson Antoli, and published at Rieff (Riva de Trento), 1560, | small 8vo., "The whole of Aristotle's Logic, abridged by Ibn Roshd"); “Quæsita Varia in Libros Logicæ," ("Various Questions on Aristotle's Logic;") and a short Letter on the Posterior Analytics, "Epistola in Librum de Demonstratione." The Second volume contains-"Paraphrasis in Libros Tres Rhetoricorum Aristotelis," ("A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Rhetoric;") “Paraphrasis in Librum Poetica Aristotelis," (" A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Poetic,") now first published. The Third volume contains-" Expositio in Aristotelis Libros Decem Moralium Nicomachiorum," ("An Exposition of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics;") and "Paraphrasis in Libros Platonis de Republica,” (“A Paraphrase of the Republic of Plato.") The Fourth volume contains- Prooemium in Aristotelis de Physico Auditu Libros Octo,” (“ A Preface to the Physics of Aristotle ;") "Commentaria in eosdem Magna," ("The great Commentary on the same;") and "Expositio Media super tres primos Libros," ("The Intermediate (?) Exposition on the first three Books of the same,") now first published. (These works were abridged and translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Samuel Ben Jehuda Aben Tibbon, and published at Rieff (Riva de Trento) in 1560, small 8vo., "A Compendium of the Physical Auscultation of Aristotle," by Ibn Roshd.) The Fifth volume contains-" Commentarii in Aristotelis libros de Cœlo,” (“A Commentary on Aristotle's Work on the Heavens ;") "Paraphrasis in eosdem," ("A Paraphrase of the same;") "Expositio Media in Aristotelis Libros de Generatione et Corruptione," ("The Intermediate (?) Exposition of Aristotle's Work on Generation and Corruption;") "Paraphrasis in eosdem," ("A Paraphrase of the same:")" Expositio Media in Aristotelis Libros Meteorologicorum," (" The Intermediate Exposition of Aristotle's Work on Meteors.") The Sixth volume contains-." Paraphrasis in Aristotelis Libros Quatuor de Partibus Animalium,” ("A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Work on the Parts of Animals,") now first published; "Commentarii in Aristotelis Libros Tres de Anima," ("A Commentary on Aristotle's Work on the Soul;") "Paraphrasis in Aristotelis Librum de Sensu et Sensilibus,” (“ A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Work on Sense and Sensibles;") "Paraphrasis in Aristotelis Librum de Memoria et Reminiscentia,” (“ A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Work on Memory and Reminiscence;") "Paraphrasis in Aristotelis Libros de Somno et Vigilia, de Somniis, et de Divinatione per Somnum," (" A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Works on Sleep and Wakefulness, on Dreams, and on Divination by Sleep ;") "Paraphrasis in Aristotelis Libros Quinque de Generatione Animalium," ("A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Work on the Generation of Animals,") now first published; "Paraphrasis in Aristotelis Librum de Longitudine et Brevitate Vitæ," ("A Paraphrase of Aristotle's Work on Length and Shortness of Life." The Seventh volume contains nothing by Averroes: the Eighth contains-"Commentarii in Aristotelis Meta 66 physicorum Libros Quatuordecim," ("Com- | mentaries on Aristotle's Metaphysics;") and Epitome in eosdem Metaphysicorum Libros," ("An Epitome of Aristotle's Metaphysics.") The Ninth volume contains "Sermo de Substantia Orbis," ("A Discourse on the Substance of the World;" ("Destructio Destructionum Philosophiæ Algazelis," ("The Destruction of Al-ghazzálí's Destruction of Philosophy," a work which will be more particularly noticed hereafter; "Tractatus de Animæ Beatitudine," ("A Treatise on the Blessedness of the Soul.") The Tenth volume contains" Colliget Libri Septem," the Work called "Colliget," which will be more particularly noticed hereafter; "Collectaneorum de Re Medica Sectiones Tres," ("Three Sections of Medical Miscellanies,") the first, "De Sanitate," ("On Health;") the second, "De Sanitate Tuenda," (" On Pre- | serving Health;") and the third, "De Ratione Curandorum Morborum," ("On the Method of Curing Diseases,") corresponding respectively to the second, sixth, and seventh books of the "Colliget;" "Commentaria in Avicennæ Cantica," ("A Commentary on Avicenna's Cantica ;") and "Tractatus de Theriaca," ("A Treatise on Theriaca,") now first published. The Eleventh volume contains "Marci Antonii Zimaræ Solutiones Contradictionum in Dictis Aristotelis et Averrois," ("Zimara's Solutions of the Contradictions in the Writings of Aristotle and Averroës.") Many of the above-mentioned works of Averroës had been previously published, either in a separate form, or in a collection with Aristotle's works, at Venice, 1496, fol., 1497, fol., and 1500, fol. (Panzer, Annal. Typograph.) The celebrity of Averroës as a writer rests chiefly on his Commentaries on Aristotle, which form the greater portion of his published works, and which in the middle ages gained for him the title of "The Soul of Aristotle," and "The Commentator." Of the value of these renowned commentaries it is very difficult to speak, chiefly because in the present day they are probably seldom, if ever, read, and also because we do not find that all the writers who had used and studied them held them in equal estimation. It seems, however, agreed that he laboured under the disadvantage of understanding little or no Greek, and of being forced to read his author's works in a translation; and accordingly we find that he falls into continual mistakes, and sometimes completely misrepresents Aristotle's opinions. This very defect, however, has been ingeniously turned by Vossius into a subject for praise, and he exclaims (De Philos. Sect. p. 90), "If, without knowing Greek, he was so happy in explaining the meaning of Aristotle, what would he not have done if he had understood that language?" Some persons may think that he made up in some measure for his 66 deficiency in this respect by his admiration, or rather veneration, for his author, which does indeed seem to have been extravagant. In one place he says that his writings are "so perfect that none of those who have come after him, up to the present time, through a space of fifteen hundred years, have added anything to them, nor can you find in them any error of importance; a degree of perfection which it is miraculous and extraordinary to find in any one individual, so that the possessor is worthy of being considered rather a divine than a human being." (Procm. in Aristot. Phys. Auscult. vol. iv. p. 3, verso.) In another place, “Let us praise God, who has separated this man from all others in perfection, and appropriated to him the highest human dignity." (De Generat. Animal. i. 20, vol. vi. p. 216.) And in a third passage (quoted by Brucker), he says, "The doctrine of Aristotle is the perfection of truth, for as much as his intellect was the utmost limit of the human intellect; so that it may be truly said of him, that he was created and given to us by a Divine Providence that we might be aware of how much is possible to be known." The following are Tennemann's remarks on Averroes (Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, § 258.) Among the Arabs Averroes was the greatest, almost the slavish admirer of Aristotle. He is pre-eminently called The Commentator; and, notwithstanding his numerous official employments, he was the most active of all the Arab writers. His services towards Aristotle must be estimated with reference to the circumstances of the times. His object was to be merely an interpreter of Aristotle; but he combined the Aristotelian doctrine of Matter and Form with the emanation of the Alexandrine school, in order to establish a living original principle, by means of which every thing that depends on the original principle might be explained; and thus he introduced a foreign element into the system of Aristotle, of which his theory of the active understanding is a necessary consequence. The original essence converts all Forms into Reality, not by means of creation, for from nothing nothing can come, but by combination of the Matter with the Form, or by the development (explication) of the Form which is implicated in the Matter. (Averroës, lib. xii. Metaph.) Thought, as well as the sensuous perception, presupposes three things: a receptive (material) understanding; the understanding which is received, or the forms of thought, which is the thinking power; and an operating understanding, which produces motion, and causes the material, as well as the abstract forms and the principle that produces thought, to become objects of thought. There is an active understanding in which all human individuals equally participate; this comes to AVERROES. attacking the tenets of the Greek and Mohammedan philosophers, fell himself into several important errors with respect to the creation of the world, and the nature and the attributes of the Divinity; and therefore Averroes in his answer had the advantage of employing his talents in the defence of the (according to Wolff, in his "Bibliotheca Hetruth. It was first translated into Hebrew bræa") by one of the family named Calonymus, and then from Hebrew into Latin; as indeed appears to have been the case with printed several times in the fifteenth and most of the works of Averroës. It was tioned by Panzer is that of Venice, 1495, fol. lected edition mentioned above, there is a Besides the works contained in the collittle book in English, which is probably rather scarce, published at London, in small Transcript of several Letters from Averroës 8vo. 1695, entitled "Averroëana: being a an man from without; its principle is probably that which puts the moon in motion. Averroes, however, is a clear enlightened thinker, who believes in the truth of the Koran, but he views it only as a popular system of religion, and considers that it requires a scientific foundation." Averroes is commonly said to have belonged to the religious sect of the Ash'arites, whose principal tenets have been mentioned under the name of their founder [AL-ASH'ARI'], and this leads us to notice the charge of impiety that has been so constantly brought against him and his writings. The irreligious opinions attributed to him have been carefully col-sixteenth centuries: the earliest edition menlected by Bayle in his long article on Averroës, but they do not seem to rest on any evidence sufficient to entitle them to belief. It is, however, conjectured by Brucker, and apparently not without reason, that he adhered with more devotion to the tenets of his favourite philosopher than to those of Mohammed or any other religious sect. His works appear to have been always considered erroneous and dangerous, chiefly on account of his opinions respecting the eternity of the world, the mortality of the soul, and the existence of a universal intelligence; which two latter theories Freind, while correcting some of Bayle's errors, appears himself to have misunderstood, and to have confounded the immortality of the universal intelligence with the immortality of each individual's soul. (Brucker, Hist. Crit. Philosoph. tom. iii. p. 112.) In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the admirers of the Peripatetic philosophy in Italy were divided into two sects; the Alexandrists, or followers of Alexander Aphrodisiensis, and the Averroists, who embraced the opinions of Averroës. Among the latter were Achillini, Zimara, Cesalpini, &c.; the other party boasted of some still more celebrated names. Though the works of both these once famous writers are now little read, their opinions had at the beginning of the sixteenth century so much influence, and were considered so dangerous, that there is a special bull of Pope Leo X., dated December 19, 1513, and directed "Contra asserentes animam rationalem mortalem esse, et (aut?) in omnibus unicam," Against those who assert that the rational soul is mortal, or one only in all men;" the former part of the sentence being directed against the Alexandrists, the latter against the Averroists. (Labbeus and Cossartius, Concilia, tom. xiv. p. 187.) 66 The most celebrated of the works of Averroës, after his Commentaries on Aristotle, is that which is entitled "Teháfatu-t-teháfati," "Destruction of the Destruction," commonly called "Destructorium Destructorii." derives its name from a treatise of Al-ghazIt zálí entitled "Teháfatu-l-filosofá," "Destruction of the Philosophers," to which it is an answer. In this work Al-ghazzálí, while 294 Spain, to Metrodorus a young Grecian noArabian Philosopher at Corduba in bleman, student at Athens, in the years 1149 and 1150. Also several Letters from Pythagoras to the King of India," &c. In a of the Messieurs de Port Royal in France, to "Letter Prefatory by Monsieur Grineau, one the ingenious Monsieur Gramont, Merchant these Letters "were written by Averroes' at Amsterdam," dated 1687, it is said that own hand in ancient Latin, and in the year and laid up in the library of a certain noble1231 brought from his study at Corduba, sometimes considered as genuine, and quoted man at Andaluzia." As this work has been accordingly, it seems necessary to state that the contents are so very suspicious (to say the least of it), that nothing but the strongest external evidence could warrant a person's believing them either genuine or authentic; whereas, in fact, they do not appear to possess any external evidence whatever in their fathe Arabic biographers of Averroes, they are vour, as they are not alluded to by any of not stated to have ever existed in the Arabic language, and even the MS. of the Latin copy is not distinctly stated to have been in existence at the date of their publication. is entitled "Kitábu-l-kulliyyat" (commonly The principal medical work of Averroës Whole," meaning probably that part of written "Colliget"), "The Book of the medical science which relates to the body in general, as, when he wrote this work, he write another "On the Parts" (or treatment asked his friend Abú Merwán Ibn Zohr to of each different member of the body in particular), which might be a sort of complement to his, and form together with it a complete composition of this work his Arabian biotreatise on the science of medicine. In the graphers consider that he surpassed himself; and philosophical spirit, it has long lost much but, though it contains evidences of his acute AVERROES. (Repert. Bibl.) as his authority for the fol- 1594, fol.; and some short extracts are also of its former reputation, and in real value is far inferior to several other of the medical writings of the Arabians. It is divided into seven books, the titles of which give a sufficient idea of their contents. The First treats "De Anatomia," of Anatomy; the Second, "De Sanitate," of Health; the Third, "De Egritudinibus et Accidentibus," of Diseases and Accidents; the Fourth, "De Signis Sanitatum et Ægritudinum," of the Signs of Health and Disease; the Fifth, "De Cibis et Medicinis," of Food and Medicines; the Sixth, "De Regimine Sanitatis," of the Regimen of Health; and the Seventh," De Agritudinum Curatione, seu Ingenio Sanitatis," of the Healing of Diseases or the Means (?) of recovering Health. The work is (as he tells us himself) chiefly a compendium of what had been said by others, with He begins with some additions of his own. the general rules of the art, and so descends to particulars. He says expressly that no one will be able to understand his writings, unless he is well versed in logic and natural philo-authors "De Febribus," Venice, 1576, and sophy; and accordingly we find that he applies the Peripatetic doctrines to the art of healing more frequently than Avicenna or any of the Arabian writers. In anatomy he professes to give us nothing new, and indeed (like almost all the ancient and medieval authors) he here entirely copies Galen, though he thought so highly of this branch of medical science, that in one of his remarkable sayings that have been preserved he declares, that" Whoever studies anatomy, his merits with the Almighty are increased by it." He places the principal seat of vision in the crystalline lens; attributes different mental functions to different parts of the brain; and seems to have had absurd and credulous ideas on the subject of generation. In the practical part of his work there is scarcely anything but what is borrowed, forming in this, as in some other respects, a striking contrast with the work of his friend Avenzoar. It has been stated by several modern authors, that Averroës never himself gave any medicine to the sick; but this, as Freind remarks, is directly contrary to what appears from his own works, as he several times speaks of his own personal experience. He seems, however, as we might conclude from the history of his life and employments, to have been much more conversant with the theory than the practice of medicine; and indeed expressly says in one passage (Collig. lib. iv. cap. 3, p. 68, A. ed. 1549) that he did not consider himself to belong to the medical profession. There is one of his observations, noticed by Freind, which probably occurs in no earlier writer, that the small-pox does not attack the same person twice. The first edition of the Latin version was printed by Laurentius de Valentia, at Venice, 1482, fol. in black letter, with two columns in the page. It is a scarce book. Choulant quotes Hain The logical works of Averroes require to be briefly noticed, which consist alThese are, in most entirely of commentaries on Aristotle's treatises on that subject. general, very full, and rather prolix, but do not contribute to the understanding of the text so much as might be wished. (SaintHilaire, De la Logique d'Aristote.) Sometimes he merely writes a paraphrase, but more commonly he explains it after the manner of the Greek commentators, and with even less precision. He also wrote a commentary on the "Isagoge" of Porphyry, because he tells us (tom. i. fol. 1, ed. 1552) that it had long been customary to commence the study of logic with this work. Perhaps the most curious portion of his logical works He follows the method of is his analysis of the "Organon" and of its different parts. Avicenna and Al-ghazzálí very closely; and if the habit of writing lengthy commentaries has deprived him of some of the precision necessary for an abridgment, he nevertheless expresses himself with a clearness that shows him to be familiar with his subject. It is from Averroës that we learn that the fourth figure (of a syllogism) was ascribed to Galen (tom. i. fol. 56 verso, and 63 verso), a tra dition which is found in no Greek author,, but which, in the absence of any contradictory testimony, has been generally followed, and has caused the figure to be called by Galen's name. It is, however, rejected by Averroës as less natural than the others; and he accordingly confines his attention to the three original figures invented by Aristotle. (Saint-Hilaire.) Spain. From Spain he travelled with the Duke to Vienna, and thence to Rome. Don Diego on each occasion acted in the capacity of ambassador from his Catholic Majesty; and Aversa by accompanying him was immediately introduced to the notice of some of the most distinguished men in Europe. At Rome he was made a member of the Academies of " Umoristi" and "Anfistili," in the latter of which he was known by the name of "L'Esaltado." After continuing for some time in Rome, Aversa was induced to take holy orders. Immediately after his consecration he returned to Palermo, and was appointed by the new Archbishop, Pietro Martinez Rubio, to the chaplaincy of Santa Maria della Volta. Further information respecting Averroes may be found in the following works, and the numerous authors quoted or referred to by them:-Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. vol. i.; Leo Africanus, De Viris Illustr. in Fabri- | cius, Biblioth. Græca, vol. xiii. ed. vet.; Bayle, Dict. Hist. et Crit., who has fallen into several mistakes, some of which are corrected by Freind, Hist. of Physic, vol. ii.; From this time to the end of his life he N. Antonius, Biblioth. Hisp. Vetus, vol. ii.; devoted himself with more ardour than ever Brucker, Hist. Crit. Philos. vols. iii. et iv.; to his favourite literary occupations; and if Sprengel, Hist. de la Méd. tome ii.; Gayan- we are to judge from the number of his gos, Appendix to Al-makkarí, Hist. of Mo-works, his industry must have been astonishhammedan Dynasties in Spain, vol. i. p. xvii.; ing. He died of apoplexy, sincerely regretted Wüstenfeld, Gesch. der Arabischen Aerzte by his numerous friends, on the 3rd of und Naturforscher, § 191; Saxius, Onomast.)| April, 1663. W. A. G. AVERSA, MERCURIO D', a Neapolitan painter of the early part of the seventeenth century. He was one of the scholars of Caracciolo, and was, according to Dominici, employed by that painter to paint pictures for him, for those persons who would not give him his own price or who paid at a low rate. (Dominici, Vite de' Pittori, &c. Napolitani.) R. N. W. AVERSA, TOMMA'SO, was born at Amistrato in Sicily, towards the close of the sixteenth or shortly after the commencement of the seventeenth century. Early in life he removed to Palermo, and applied himself with diligence to the cultivation of literature. It is not known for what particular profession he was intended in his youth. Poetry and the drama, however, soon became his favourite pursuits, almost to the exclusion of every more serious study. He was still very young when the publication of "Pyramus and Thisbe," a graceful idyll in the Sicilian dialect, introduced him to the favourable notice of the public. The literati of Palermo were not slow to recognise the young poet, who was as much distinguished by his amiable manners as by his devotion to the muses. He was enrolled a member of the "Accademia de Riaccesi;" although with the ill-sounding and inappropriate name of "L'Arido.' Aversa now rapidly rose to distinction; he conciliated the esteem of the learned and noble; and among his friends and patrons at Palermo are reckoned the names of the Cardinal Archbishop, Giannettino Doria, Luigi Moncada, Duke of Montalto, and Diego of Aragon, Duke of Terranuova. The last-mentioned nobleman became so attached to his person, that Aversa at his particular request accompanied him to Of Aversa's writings the most important seems to be a translation into Sicilian rhyme of the Æneid of Virgil: the rest are for the most part either tragedies or comedies, which are not now much esteemed. The following is a list of his works, chronologically arranged :—1. "Piramo e Tisbe," an idyll in the Sicilian dialect, Palermo, 1617, 8vo. 2. "Gli Avventurosi Intrichi, Commedia," Palermo, 1637, 8vo. 3. "La Notte di Palermo, prima commedia in lingua Siciliana," Palermo, 1638, 8vo. 4. "Il Pellegrino, overo la Sfinge debellata, tragedia sacra," Palermo, 1641, 8vo. 5. "Il Giorno di Messina, Comedia," Messina, 1644, 8vo. 6. "Il Sebastiano, tragedia sacra," Palermo, 1645, 8vo. 7. "Canzoni Siciliani," inserted in vol. ii. part 2, of the collection entitled "Muse Siciliane," Palermo, 1647, 12mo., and 1662, 12mo. 8. "In portento canzone panegirica all' Illustriss. et Eccel. Signore Conte Guglielmo Stavata, Consigliero di Stato, e Camariero di Sua Maestà Cesarea," Vienna, 1647, 4to. 9. "Il Bartolomeo, overo il Selim Costante, tragedia," Messina, 1645, 8vo., and Trent, 1648, 8vo. 10. "Il primo tomo dell' Eneide di Virgilio tradotta in rima Siciliana," Palermo, 1654, 12mo. "Il secondo tomo," Palermo, 1657, 12mo. terzo tomo," Palermo, 1660, 12mo. 11. "Il Padre Pietoso, comedia morale," Rome, 1656, 12mo. 12. "L'Alipio, overo la colomba frà le Palme, poema drammatico sopra il maraviglioso arrivo dell' osse benedette del P. F. Alipio di S. Giuseppe Agostiniano Scalzo Palermitano, alle Spieaggie di Palma in Sicilia, l'anno 1653," Rome, 1657, 12mo. 13. “La Corte nelle Selve, Trattenimenti modesti ed utili, distinti in più veglie per gli dì di Carnivale. Con gli discorsi di Tomino Amistrato (T. Aversa), ed osservationi di lui sopra la 66 |