phy of history in the former are included the actions of kings and rulers, the accounts of wars and treaties, the rise and fall of empires; in the latter are comprehended descriptions of the political and religious institutions, the organization of society, the amount of knowledge, the state of industry and the arts, the morals, the habits, and the prevailing prejudices in any age or nation; and the facts thus ascertained by philosophy, are shown to be the causes of the events detailed in the narrative. It is possible to go back a step further, and to trace the origin of these institutions and manners in the succession of opirions, and gradual development of the human intellect. But unassisted reason can go no further; the law fixed by Providence for the succession of opinions and development of mind, can only be known to its omniscient Author, but that such a law exists, is proved to us by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the frequent instances of unconscious agents working out the great designs of God.

It is proposed in the following pages to unite the philosophy with the narrative of history, to combine events with their causes, and direct occasionally the attention of the student to the progress of civilization, both in its effect on society and on individuals. Sacred history-the account of the direct operations of the Divine agency on his chosen servants and chosen people-is necessarily excluded from a political history; but the general course of Providence displayed in the moral government of his creatures is an essential element of our plan: it is, in fact, the principle of unity that binds together its several parts.

The necessary companions of history are chronology and geography; they determine the time when, and the place where, each event occurred. The difficulties of chronology arise both from the imperfection of records, and from varieties in the mode of computation: the former can not be remedied; but, to prevent the mistakes which may arise from this cause, uncertain dates have been marked with an asterisk: the second source of confusion is removed by using throughout solar years for a measure of time, and the birth of Christ as an era from which to reckon.

Instead of constructing a general system of ancient geography, it has seemed better to prefix a geographical outline of the history of each separate country, and to combine with it some account of the nature of the soil, and its most remarkable animal and vegetable productions. There is no doubt that the position, climate, and fertility of a country, have a powerful influence over the character, condition, and destiny of its inhabitants, and ought not to be omitted in the consideration of their history.

The arrangement of this work is both chronological and geographical; the history of each country is given separately, but the states are arranged in the order of their attaining a commanding influence in the world. To this there are two exceptions-Egypt, which is placed first, on account of its being the earliest organized government of which we have any authentic record; and India, which is placed last, because it exercised no marked influence over the most remarkable nations of ancient times.

The history of Greece in this volume has a less orderly appearance than in most similar works, because it contains not merely the histories of Athens and Sparta, to which most writers confine their attention, but also those of the minor states, the islands and the colonies. A chapter has been added on the colonial policy of the Greeks-a subject of great importance in itself, and peculiarly interesting to a commercial country.

To the Roman history there is prefixed a brief account of the ancient inhabitants of Italy before the era usually assigned for the foundation of Rome. In the earlier period of the republic, notice is taken of the reasonable doubts that have been raised respecting the authenticity of the common narrative; but care has been taken to avoid an excess of skepticism, which is at least as bad as an excess of credulity.

In the chapter on India, attention has been directed to the ancient routes of trade between that country and eastern Europe: many of these subsist to the present day; projects have been formed for reopening others; some account of them consequently appears necessary, for illustrating both ancient commerce and modern policy.

In a general summary, restricted within narrow limits, it is scarcely : possible to avoid dryness of details; notes have therefore been added, consisting for the most part of illustrations and anecdotes, that mayserve both to relieve the mind, and to place important traits of character, national and individual, in a clearer light.

It has been deemed advisable to take some notice of the mythology, as well as the real history, of nations; for though mythic traditions may in many or in most instances have had no foundation, yet they should not be wholly neglected by the historian, for they had a share in forming, and they help to illustrate, the character of the nation by which they were once believed. At the same time, care has been taken to separate these traditions from the authenticated narrative, and to discriminate between those that have, and those that have not, some probable foundation in fact.

Political reflections and moral inferences from the narrative have, in general, been avoided: the instructive lessons of history are, for the most part, found on the surface, and may best be collected by the students themselves. It is not quite fair to prejudge questions for the mind; the chief business of those who write for the young should be to make them think, not to think for them.

The author has to acknowledge his great obligations to the works of Professor Heeren, whose volumes on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of Ancient Nations, should form part of every historical library; he has also borrowed very copiously from the valuable essays that have appeared in the Memoirs of the French Academy of Inscriptions; his particular obligations in the several chapters need not be specified, most of them being mentioned in the notes.

The design of this introduction is merely to explain the plan of the work; some few suggestions, however, may be added on the mode of using it. Students should compare the geographical chapters with maps, and fix in their minds the most characteristic natural features of the country whose history they are about to commence. One division should be thoroughly mastered before another is begun; and when the whole is gone through, it will be found a most useful exercise to synchronize the events in the history of one country with the events ir the history of another; for instance, to trace the condition of the Re msn republic at the time of the battle of Arbéla.

THE

STUDENT'S MANUAL

OF

ANCIENT HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.

EGYPT.

SECTION 1.-Geographical Outline.

EGYPT is the country in which we first find a government and polit ical institutions established. Civilization everywhere seems to have commenced in the formation of agricultural associations, on the banks of rivers; and the Nile invites men to tillage more forcibly than any other. Egypt itself has been called, from the earliest antiquity, "the Gift of the Nile," and its annual inundations have had a vast influence over the lives and customs, the religion and science, indeed, the entire social existence of the people. It appears that civilization advanced northward along the valley of the river: and we shall therefore commence our examination of the land, at the southern frontier of Egypt.

The Nile enters Egypt near the city of Syéne, below the cataracts, and flows through a narrow valley, about nine miles in breadth, to Chem'mis, where the valley begins to widen. At Cercasórus, sixty miles from its mouth, the stream divides, and encloses a triangular piece of country, called the Delta. The narrow valley from Syéne to Chem'mis was called Upper Egypt; the wider valley, Middle Egypt; and the Delta, Lower Egypt.

Rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt, almost never in the upper regions: the fertility of the country, therefore, depends on the annual overflowings of the river. These inundations are caused by the heavy rains, that fall in Upper Ethiopia, from May to September. The rivers of that country pour their waters into the Nile, which begins to rise about the middle of June. Early in August, the river overflows its banks, giving the valley of the Nile the appearance of an inland sea. Toward the beginning of October, the waters begin to subside, and, by the end of the month, are confined to the proper channel of the river. The fertility of Egypt extends as far as this inundation reaches, or can be continued by artificial means.

The eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous range of country, extending to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pasturage, but unfit for agriculture; abounding, however, in those rich quarries of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the architectural wonders of Egypt.

On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony ridge covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would otherwise desolate the whole country.

Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and interesting monuments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Philæ and Elephantine containing the proudest edifices of antiquity; lower down, the city of Apollo; then Thebes, filling the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous temples, more like mountains than human edifices colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river; and lastly, Dendèra, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple.

Middle Egypt is a wider valley. It contains the lake Moeris, ar immense reservoir, partly natural, partly artificial, and affording such facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity was near Arsinoë. Below Arsin'oë was Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper Egypt. But the most remarkable monuments of this district are the Pyramids.

Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered with flourishing cities, as Sa'is, Naúcratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the name, and proves by its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder.

The more civilized portion of the Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social life, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, would scarcely be credited. It was the great object of the sacerdotal and royal policy, to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the pastoral and plundering tribes on their northeastern frontiers: and hence we find it recorded, that " every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians."

SECTION II.-Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians.

IT appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher castes of priests and warriors were fairer than the other classes. It has been conjectured that the Egyptians derived their system of civilization from the Hindus: but it is difficult to conceive how this could be.

Local circumstances produced marked differences in the habits and