genus avis maximum Graece (V 152,43) (a note of a lecture of Placidus,

perhaps on a Bible passage). ŏρveov (II 480, 8) PHILOX.

sturnus: ψᾶρος (ΙΙ 189, 54):ψὰρ τὸ titiunculus: κεγχρίς, εἶδος ιέρακος

μɩкрoû (II 347, 12; IV 377, 18, apparently the same gloss turned into a Latin form, pipiunculus: accipiter, acceptor) PHILOX. turdela: maior turdus cuius stercore viscus generatur (II 596, 8) (transferred bodily from Isid. Etym. 12, 7, 71). turdus:ἡ κίχλα TÒ πтηνÓν (II 551, 63; 203, 21) PHILOX. (a Charisius gloss, from Gram. Lat. I 552, 21 turdus:κixλa). turtur:τρυγὼν τὸ ὄρνεον (II 460, 38) PHILOX. (a Charisius gloss, from Gram. Lat. I 552, 20 turtur:Tpvywv). Also turtur: avicula blanda; de qua Iuvenalis turtur:τρυγών). (6, 39) 'turture magno'; generis masculini (V 251, 34) (from Donatus?). ulula:óλoλvywv (II 210, 40) PHILOX. Also ululae: aves nocturnae (IV 194, 44) ABOL. (a Virgil gloss, from Ecl. 8, 55). Also ulula:genus avis; Virgilius (Ecl. 8, 55) 'certent et cycnis ululae' (V 254, 20) (from Donatus?). upupa:ἔποψ τὸ ὄρνεον, picus (II 313, 33) PHILOX. (see above, picus). vultur:yo (II 265, 53), vulturius:yú (II 212, 43) PHILOX. (a Charisius gloss, from Gram. Lat. I 98, 3 vultur Vergilius, sed et vulturius Lucilius).

A schoolbook combining conversation-manual, phrase-book, and dictionary, published (all or part) in the year 207 A.D. and known nowadays as the Hermeneumata pseudo-Dositheana, contains a Greek-Latin list of bird-names. The list is here arranged alphabetically, with the Latin equivalent preceding the Greek. Those items which are likely to be accretions to the original collection are put within brackets; the most suspicious are ignored.

DE AVIBUS: Περὶ Ορνέων

(acceia: dokaλán) [so Goetz, fol-
lowing Stephanus; but the Mont-
pellier MS has ασκαλωπη] (ΙΙΙ 319,
24)

acceptor: lépa (III 17, 40; 89, 66)
(alcyon: áλvv) (III 319, 50)
anatis: vooa (III 17, 57)
anser:xv (III 17, 35)

aquila: derós (III 17, 38)

(ardea: èpwdiós) (III 188, 14; 258, 3)
bardala: kopvdaλλós (III 90, 10). At
III 18, 3 parrumla: kopvdaós. Is
this a mere mistake for bardala?
bubo: νυκτικόραξ, (έρημοβόας) (ΙΙΙ 18,
2; 319, 66)

cardellus: ἀστραγαλίνος, ἀκανθυλλίς)
(III 89, 74; 319, 52)
charadrio: xapadpiós (III 90, 8)

(ciconia: reλapyós) (III 319, 3)
(cicuma: yλav) (III 319, 26-27)
columba: repuτepá (III 17, 52)
cornicula: kopávn (III 17, 41)
corvus: Kópaέ (III 89, 67)
(coturnix: oprug) (III 319, 46)
cuculus: KOKKU (III 17, 56)
(falco: Kipkos) (III 188, 45)
ficedula: ovκaís (III 17, 47)

fringuillus: σivos (III 17, 46)

palumbus: páσoa (III 17, 51; 188, 2)
parra(-us): aiyilaλos (III 17, 48)
(parra modica:αἴγινθος μικρός) (ΙΙΙ
319, 30)

(parra permodica: Kuvaíywoos) (III
319, 32)

passer: σrpovoós (III 17, 43)
pavo: raws (III 17, 37)

perdix: wépôt (III 17, 40; 319, 14)
(phasianus: paolavós) (III 188, 19)

(fulica-cil-MSS]: Tpoxíλos) (III 188, (phoenicopterus: poviкóжTEρos) (III

21)

gallina: opvis (III 17, 34)

319, 1)

(pica: κíoσa) (III 188, 25)

gallus: ἀλέκτωρ, (ἀλεκτρυών) (ΙΙΙ 17, picus Martius: δρυοκόλαψ (III 18, 4;

33; 318, 64)

graulus: Koλocós (III 17, 42)

(grus: yépavos) (III 318, 69)
hirundo: xedav (III 17, 49)
(levadio: av@os) (?) (III 188, 10)
luscinius: ándor (III 17, 59; 90, 5)
mergulus: aïovia (III 17, 58)
merulus: kóσovos (III 17, 60)
milvus:iktív (III 17, 39)
motacilla: σeoonvyis (III 17, 50)
noctua: yλav (III 89, 4)

olor: KúKvos (III 17, 36)

319, 25)

(psittacus: VITTAKÓS) (III 319, 49)
querquedula: βοσκάς, (φαλαρὶς λευκο-
μέτωπος) (ΙΙΙ 17, 59; 89, 63; 188,
41; 319, 12)

regaliolus: Baolíσkos (III 17, 44)
(striga: VUKTIKópaέ) (III 319, 4)
(struthio: σTpovokáμnλos) (III 187,
61)

sturnus:áo (III 90, 11)
turdus: Kíxλa (III 18, 1)
turtur: Tpvyov (III 17, 53)
ulucus: óλoλvyóv (III 17, 55)

(ossifragus: Aevkóyv, аρwη) (III 188, (upupa: rov) (III 319, 34)
(vulturius: y) (III 319, 5)

29; 319, 2)

The similarity of many Herm. items to Philox. items suggests
that the marginalia material of Philox. was often culled from Herm.
by the annotators, but hardly that Herm. itself was an immediate
source of Philox.; for, in that case, we should expect all the Herm.
items to appear in Philox.

The Latin glossaries are not a mere concern of linguists. When
we get to know their history, light will be thrown on the history of
culture in the Dark Ages. Indeed, one item of an unusual type,
rescued from a Leyden MS of the twelfth century, actually contains
a fragment of history, how Ireland became a home of learning after
the barbaric invasions: sub quorum vastatione omnes sapientes
cismarini fugam ceperunt et in transmarinis, videlicet in Hiber<n>ia,

et quocumque se receperunt maximum profectum sapientiae incolis illarum regionum adhibuerunt (see K. Meyer's paper in the Irish Review of November, 1912). So the learning of Burdigala passed oversea (like the wine) to Ireland. Except parts of Italy (and, of course, Greece), Ireland was the only European country where Greek was known; and Englishmen who learnt any Greek learnt it in Ireland. The question arises: Does any morsel of Greek lore survive in the (miserably attenuated) items of the 'English group' of glossaries (in C.G.L. II, V), i.e., such as offer occasionally or normally an Anglo-Saxon interpretation of a Latin word? For my part, I can find none. Nothing has emerged as yet which would force us to believe that the use of bilingual glossaries passed to England from Ireland, and not from Italy (through Bobbio, St. Gall, etc.). Indeed, since English glosses would be written by English monks at a Continental mission-centre as readily as at home, I find no definite proof that these 'English' glossaries were compiled in England. To help the solution of the problem, a list (not quite a full one) of the Anglo-Saxon glosses of C.G.L. II, V is appended; also additional items from the Corpus College Glossary (Corp.) in Hessels' edition (Cambridge, 1890) and from § xlvii of the Leyden Glossary (Leid.) in Hessels' edition (Cambridge, 1906), items culled (certainly, I think, those common to Leid. § xlvii and Corp., and probably most of the others common to Corp. and Ampl. I) from the same source, Hermeneumata (HERM.), not later than the seventh century. English glossary-compilers proclaim themselves to be of the Guild of St. Francis by their predilection for bird-names.

In discussing the gloss mergus we learnt with what rashness vernacular equivalents were offered; in that case by an Irishman. English guesses at the meaning of Latin or Greek names of birds would be quite as reckless. Indeed, the flimsiness of all Anglo-Saxon glosses may be appreciated from the history of an Abstrusa gloss (IV 18, 48) Apricitas: calor. In the MS of Abstrusa Major (or extracts from it) which reached England (or English foundations on the Continent) this was miswritten Apricitas: color. The scribe of Corp., knowing the meaning of color, but not of apricitas, has added the Anglo-Saxon form of our 'hue,' Apricitas: color, hio. This would, sooner or later, be reduced by a transcriber to Apricitas: hio.

Many Anglo-Saxon bird-names may bear the same relation to the Latin lemma-word as 'hue' to apricitas.

(In this list Anglo-Saxon words are replaced, wherever possible, by their English or German forms of today.)

Acalanthis vel luscinia vel roscina: nightingale (V 339, 11; Corp. A 121) ABSTR. Acceia: Holzhahn (V 340, 9; Corp. A 125; Leid.): snipe (Corp. A 138) HERM. Anser:auca, id est goose

Arpa: earn-
Bubo: uuj

(V 266, 20) PHILOX. Ardea et dieperdulum(?): Reiher (V 340, 10; Corp. A 729) HERM. (Cf. below, perdulum.) geat (V 340, 8; Corp. A 759 and 862; Leid.) HERM. (V 347, 40 and 55; Corp. B 206). Butio: kite (Corp. B 199): frysca (Corp. B 227). Caradrion: lark (V 354, 67; Corp. C 148). Cardella: thistletwite (Corp. C 122; Leid.) HERM.

Gavia: avis

Gente: wild

our 'tern'). Graulus (grallus MSS.): rook

Larus: mew (V 370,

Ciconia: stork (V 353, 43; Corp. C 405; Leid.) HERM. Corax: raven (V 354, 11; Corp. C 735). Cornicula: crow (V 353, 19; Corp. C 652 and 178). Cornix:crow (V 354, 65; Corp. C 653 and 178). Cuculus: gowk (V 353, 50; Corp. C 948). Cucuzata: lapwing (V 353, 49; Corp. C 951; Leid.) HERM. Erodius:walh-habuc (V 365, 11; Corp. H 83). Ficedula: sucga (V 360, 42; Corp. F 176; Leid.) HERM. Fringella: finch (V 360, 43; Corp. F 331; Leid.) HERM. Fulix:gannet vel Tauf-ente (V 360, 38; Corp. F 382). quae dicitur stern Saxonice (V 297, 49; goose (Corp. G 53 and 68; C 341). (V 363, 18; Corp. G 154). Cf. Corp. G 14 and C 178 Garrula: crow. Hirundo: swallow (V 365, 13; Corp. H 106). 3; Corp. L 50). Marsopicus: fina (V 372, 22; HERM. Mergulus (mergus): scart (V 372, cf. Corp. M 182 and 199). M 165). Noctua: ulula, owl N 145); nightraven, alii dicunt corax: nightraven (V 374, 9). Olor [graece, latine] cycnus, Elb(schwan) (V 376, 58; Corp. O 152): swan (V 376, 1; Corp. O 141, H 134). Ortygometra: edisc-haen (V 376, 21; Corp. O 236). (A Bible gloss.) Palumbes: cushat (V 382, 56; Corp. P 136). Parula (-rr-): (tit)mouse (V 382, 23; Corp. P 128). Pavo: pea(cock) (V 382, 50; Corp. P 131). Perdulum(?): Reiher (Leid.) HERM. (cf. above, ardea). Phasianus: wor-hana (V 360, 44; Corp. F 22).

Corp. M 35; Leid.) 29; Corp. M 160;

Merula: ousel (V 372, 35; Corp. (Corp. N 138); nightraven (Corp. nightingale (V 374, 6). Nycti

Picus: Häher, fina (V 382, 25; Corp. P 424): Häher (Leid.) HERM. Porphyrio: pelicanus, felofor (V 380, 13; 382, 24; Corp. P 498 and 517). Progna: swallow (V 382, 58; Corp. P 710) ABSTR. Ruscinia (ros-): nightingale (V 386, 45; Corp. R 201; Leid.) HERM. Scorellus: ammer (as in 'yellow-hammer') (V 390, 14; Corp. S 166; Leid.) HERM. Sturnus: star (ling) (V 390, 13; Corp. S 526): drop-faag (V 390, 38; Corp. S 530):fina (Corp. S 577). Tilaris: lark (V 396, 42; Corp. T 323 and 313). Turdus: scric (V 396, 43;

Corp. T 324; Leid.) HERM.

Suspicion attaches to some of the interpretations: e.g., (Noctua) 'nightingale' seems a reckless addition by one scribe or corrector; (Ficedula) 'sucga' looks like a guess at the meaning of ovxaλλis. And to some of the Latin lemma-words: e.g., Martius picus, which in the Montpellier MS of the Hermeneumata appears as picus Marsicus, had sunk in the archetype of the English group to Marsopicus (in one of the three MSS to Marpicus). It is plain. Neither Greek lore nor any kind of lore is to be looked for in these glosses.

When we are able to refer glosses to their source we can estimate their worth. While these vernacular (Anglo-Saxon, Irish, etc.) glosses are the least valuable, the Herm. items give absolutely certain information. For we cannot imagine the composer of an early phrase-book, which gained a popularity as lasting and widespread as even Donatus' grammar, to have made a mistake in his identification of a Greek with a Latin bird-name. What are we to say of the glosses culled from notes on Virgil and other authors? An Italian or Spanish or French monastery-teacher of (let us suppose) the seventh century would not take any pains to find the correct Greek equivalent or Latin description to write in the margin of a MS of Virgil or Horace. He would probably accept anything that occurred to him which seemed to suit the sense of the passage. To one 'commentator' (if they deserve the name) the 'parrae recinentis omen' of Horace (C. 3, 27, 1) would suggest the loud chatter of a jay; another might imagine a quite different bird 'singing the wayfarer back, back.' The discrepancy between bird-name glosses is often explained by the line whose annotation was their source. There is a story of Tennyson asking a lady what were the 'birds in the high