Norman Conquest; viz, a pound in that age was three times the quantity it is at present, and ten times its value in purchasing any commodity.

ORIGIN OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN ENGLAND.

The origin of all weights and measures in England, was derived from a corn of wheat, (vide Statutes of 51 Henry III., 31 Edward I., 12 Henry VII.) which enacted, that 32 of them, well dried and gathered from the middle of the ear, were to make one pennyweight; but it was subsequently thought better to divide the dwt, in 24 equal parts, called grains. All measures of capacity, both liquid and dry, were at first taken from Troy-weight, and several laws were passed in the reign of Henry III. enacting, that 8 lbs. Troy of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear, and well dried, should make one gallon of Wine measure. The standard Wine Gallon, which was kept sealed at Guildhall, was generally reckoned to contain 231 cubic inches; but Dr. Wybard, in his Tectometry, having asserted that it did not contain more than 224 or 225 cubic inches, an experiment was made, May 25th, 1688, to ascertain the fact. The Commissioners of Excise caused a vessel to be made in form of a parallelopipedon, each side of its base was 4 inches, and its depth 14 inches, so that its just content was 224. In presence of the Lord Mayor, the Commissioners of the Excise, the Rev. Mr. Flamstead (Astronomer-Royal), Mr. Halley, and several other eminent mathematicians, this vessel was very exactly filled with water, and being carefully emptied into the Standard Wine Gallon, did so accurately fill it, that all present were fully convinced it contained only 224 cubic inches. However, it was not thought convenient to alter the supposed content of 231, and accordingly the error continued until the recent introduction of the new Imperial Gallon. The old Beer or Ale Gallon of 282 cubic inches, was intended to bear the same proportion to Avoirdupois-weight as the Wine did to Troy; for it was founded by several nice experiments, that the 1 lb. Avoirdupois was equal to 14 oz. 11 dwts. 15 grs. Troy; being very near 14 oz. and six tenths. Hence 12: 231 :: 14-6 to 281,05, and by a trial of the Standard Ale Quart, kept in the Exchequer, (12 Charles II.), it was found to contain just 70 cubic inches, and consequently the gallon 70 × 4: 282. The old Dry or Corn Gallon was originally meant to bear a mean (or nearly so) between the Wine and Beer Gallon; it was, previous to 1697, computed to hold 2724 cubic inches; but a statute made in that year enacted, the Winchester Bushel should be round, with a plain and even bottom, 18 inches throughout, and 8 inches deep; consequently, it contained 215,042 cubic inches for the old legal Corn Gallon. Weights and measures were invented 869 B.C.; fixed to a standard in England, 1257; regulated, 1492; equalized, 1826.

ALMANACS.

Almanacs are said to have originated with the Northern Nations, who formerly used to engrave, or cut upon square sticks about a foot in breadth, the courses of the moon of the whole year; whereby they could tell when the new moons and changes should appear, as also their festival days; and this they called an Al-mon-aght, that is to say, all must heed. The more correct etymology is, however, unquestionably from the Arabic al, the article, and mana or manah to count.

They were first published by Martin Ilkus, at Luda in Poland, in 1470; compiled by Muller, in their present form, 1473; the Stationers' Company of London claimed an exclusive right to publish them till 1779; and a million annually at one time are said to have been sold. For some curious particulars of the contents of the earlier almanacs, see the Companion to the Almanac for 1829.

COIN.

At the Conquest, the little coined silver that we had, bore the same countenance with that which had been current in the days of our Saxon kings; for the Conqueror's penny is of the same size as them, presenting his head full-faced, a cross in his right hand, and a sceptre in his left, inscribed Willem Rex Anglo. On the reverse, an arms fleirée, with four sceptres quarterly, the inscription Jesthn on Herefor. Stowe says, the conqueror, as he appeared on his coins, wanted a beard, and quotes William of Malmesbury to prove that the Normans never wore any; he also mentions, that some of the conqueror's coins had Le Rey Wilam inscribed on them, though all that are now attributed to him have either the simple style of Rex, or with the addition of An or Angolo. It is presumed that the coinage of money in this fashion, was one of the improvements which the Norman court received from our Edward the Confessor, who by their own writers is acknowledged to have taught them a great many English customs. All great sums were paid at this time by weight; thus, the monks of Ely paid the king 700 marks; and Edgar Atheling's allowance was a pound of silver daily (1074). The purveyances were even changed into money, and the sheriff collected them in the following proportions. Instead of

Bread for 100 men, one shilling.
One pasture-fed ox, one shilling.
A ram, or sheep, four pence.

Provender for 20 horses, four pence.

But when these little contributions were thus gathered, the collectors still paid the gross sums into the exchequer by weight.

ORIGIN OF GOLD COIN IN ENGLAND.

The first gold coins on record were struck by Henry III., A.D. 1257, and were called gold pennies, weighing as much as two silver pence, and passing for twenty-pence. The next gold coinage was that of the florin (from Florence) in 1354. called also abroad the guelder, or golden piece. Of the old gold standard, the principal coins were nobles, of 6s. 8d. value; half and quarter, or farthing nobles, as they were called; marks, of 13s. 4d. value; angels of 10s., and sovereigns of 20s. each.

Guineas were first coined in the reign of Charles II., and were thus named, because the gold was brought from Guinea.

Shillings were first coined in England, in the reign of Henry VII., in the year 1501. Crowns and Half Crowns in 1552. The first legal copper coin was made in the reign of James I., in 1609, prior to which private leaden tokens were in general circulation. Penny pieces, and Twopenny, of copper, were first coined in England, 1794.

COINS OF EDWARD VI.

The following is the description of the current money of that reign. King Edward's Silver Crown-piece, coined at York. It had the king's figure at full length, on horseback, in full armour, crowned, and holding a drawn sword at his heart. The horse is adorned with large embroidered trappings, with a plume of feathers on the head, and the date under him. The Mint mark is y, and it is circumscribed with these words :-EDWARD VI. D.G. AGL., FRA. Z. HIBR. REX. The reverse like that of the shilling.

The Sovereign, struck in the sixth year of his reign, had the profile figure of his majesty in armour, crowned, holding a drawn sword in his right hand, and the orb in his left. The Mint marked a tun over the royal head, circumscribed with these words:-EDWARD VI. E. G. AGL. FRAN. Z. HIB. REX. The reverse had the arms crowned, and the like supporters as his father, with E. R. on the pedestal, and the following motto:-JHS, AVTEM,

TRANSIENS PER, MEDIUM, ILLORY, IBAT.

The base shilling of Edward VI., coined at York. The Mint mark y, the head in profile, crowned with the legend, EDWARD VI. D. G. AGL. FRA. Z. HIB. REX. On the reverse, TIMOR, DOMINI, FONS VITE, M.D.XLIX.

The Half-Sovereign, coined in his third year. It has the king's bust in armour, bareheaded, circumscribed SCUTUM FIDEI PROTEGIT EUM-a rose between each word, and a rose the Mint mark. On the reverse the arms in a shield, crowned, between the initial letters E. R., with the title circumscribed as above.

The fine Shilling of Edward VI. It bore the king's bust, fullfaced, crowned, and in his parliamentary robes, with a chain of the order. On one side of the head is a large double rose, and

E

on the other the figures XII., denoting the value, with the title, as above, in old English characters. The Mint mark y, N. B. This is the first English coin on which we see the Collar of the Order of the Garter.

The Sixpence of his third year, of the York Mint. The Mint mark y. On the obverse is the king's bust in armour, crowned, and labelled with the regal title. On the reverse are the royal arms in an oval shield, garnished and crowned, with the motto, SCUTUM, FIDEI, PROTEGIT, EUM.

The Noble was also in use in this reign, as an appropriate attendant on the Sovereign.

INTEREST OF MONEY

Was 2d. per week for 20s. in 1260; 45 per cent., 1307; the first law in England for establishing interest of money at 10 per cent. was in 1546. The pious subjects of Edward VI. repealed this law as unlawful and most impious; but it was restored in queen Elizabeth's time. In those days the monarchs could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest was reduced from 10 to 8 per cent., 1624; reduced by the Rump parliament to 6 per cent., and confirmed at the Restoration; to 5 per cent., 1714; from 4 to 3 per cent., 1750. Interest of the National Debt reduced, 1749, 1823.

VALUE OF LABOUR AND MONEY IN EARLY TIMES.

In the year 1352, in the 25th of Edward III., wages paid to haymakers was 1d. per day; a mower of meadows, 3d. or 5d. an acre; reapers of corn, first week in August 2d., in the second 3d. per day, and so on till the end of August, without meat, drink, or other allowance, finding their own tools. For thrashing a quarter of wheat or rye, 24d.; a quarter of barley, beans, peas, or oats, 1d. A master carpenter, 3d. a day; other masons 3d., and servants, lad. Tilers 3d., and their knaves ląd. Thatchers, 3d. per day, and their knaves, 1d. Plasterers, and other workers of mud walls, and their knaves in like manner, without meat or drink, and this from Easter till Michaelmas; and from that time less, according to the direction of the justices.

About the year 900, king Alfred left to each of his daughters £100 in money. In 1221, Joan, eldest daughter to king John, upon her marriage with Alexander, king of Scotland, had a dowry of £1000. In 1278, Edward I. gave his daughter Joan, contracted to the son of the king of the Romans, 10,000 marks sterling, and this to be returned in case the prince died before her. In 1314, Elizabeth, wife of Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, being imprisoned in England, was allowed for herself and family, 20s. per week. In 1330, Joan of Oxford, nurse to the Black Prince, had a pension of £10 per annum; and Maud Plumpton,

salary of the Lord Chief In 1408, the Lord Chief marks per annum.

In

a rocker, had 10 marks. In 1402, the Justice of the King's Bench, was £40. Justice of the Common Pleas, had 55 1545, the former had an addition of £30 to his salary, and the other justices of £20.

STERLING.

Origin of the term as applied to money.

In the time of Richard I., money coined in the East part of Germany came in special request in England, on account of its purity, and was called Easterling Money, as all the inhabitants of those parts were called Easterlings; and soon after some of these people, skilled in coining, were sent for to London, to bring the coin to perfection, which was soon called Sterling, from Easterling. King Edward I. established a certain standard for the silver coin of England; but no gold was coined until the reign of Edward III., who in the year 1320 caused several pieces to be coined, called Florences, because they were coined by Florentines. Afterwards he coined Nobles, then Rose Nobles, current at 68. 8d., Half Nobles at 3s. 4d., called Halfpennies of gold; and Quarters at 1s. 8d., called Farthings of gold. The succeeding kings coined Rose Nobles, and Double Rose Nobles, Great Sovereigns, and Half Henry Nobles, Angels, and Shillings. James I. coined Unites, Double Crowns, and Britannia Coins, Shillings, and Sixpences. Charles II. converted most of the ancient gold coins into guineas.

BOARD WAGES.

Board Wages first commenced in England with king Charles I.'s servants, in 1629.

INSURANCE OF SHIPS, &c.

Insurance on ships and merchandise, Suetonius conjectures, was contrived by Claudius in 43. Insurance on shipping began in England, in 1560. Insurance offices in London, 1696.

RENT

Was first made payable in money, instead of kind, in 1136.

FIGURES IN ARITHMETIC

Were introduced into Europe from Arabia, 991, and into England in 1253.

ALGEBRA

Was first introduced into Europe in 1300, and became in general use in 1590. Numerical algebra was invented in 950, and first known in Europe in 1494; letters were first used in algebra in 1590.