défiance, were formidable to their sovereigns, and terrible to their fellow-subjects; and several laws were made against giving and receiving liveries; which, however, produced little effect at this period.

But hospitality was practised rather more than it is at present by persons in the middle and lower ranks of life. This was owing to the scarcity of inns, which obliged travellers and strangers to apply to private persons for lodging and entertainment; and those who relieved them hospitably, acquired a right to a similar reception. This was so much the case in Scotland, that, in the year 1424, James I. procured an act of Parliament, ordering inns to be set up in all borough towns and thoroughfares. But travellers had been so long accustomed to lodge in private houses, that these public inns were quite neglected; which, on the petition of the innkeepers, produced another act, prohibiting travellers to lodge in private houses where there were inns (hospitalries), under the penalty of 40s., to which both the host and guest were subject.

Religious Ceremonies.

The people of Britain were not chargeable with the neglect of the ceremonies of religion at this period. Many of them spent much of their time and money in performing those ceremonies. Not to mention the almost constant service in cathedrals and conventical churches, all the great barons had

chaplains in their castles, which much resembled cathedrals in the number of their clergy and choristers; the richness of their furniture and images; and the pomp and regularity with which Divine service was daily performed. The Earl of Northumberland, for instance, had constantly in his family a dean of his chapel, who was a doctor of divinity, a sub-dean, and nine other priests; eleven singing men, and six singing boys; all, twentyeight; who daily performed the service in his chapel, at Matins, Lady-mass, Even-song, and Complyne. The four first singing men acted as organists weekly, by turns. This was a very splendid and expensive establishment, consisting of greater numbers than are now to be found in several cathedrals.

But the religion of our ancestors in those times was so strongly tinctured with gross superstition, that it had little tendency to enlighten their minds, regulate their passions, or reform their lives. Their creed contained articles, which their very senses, if they durst have used them, might have convinced them could not be true. The ceremonies of their worship were mere mechanical operations, in which their minds had little or no concern; and they were taught to place their hopes of Divine favour on such fallacious grounds as the pardons of a venal priest, the patronage of a saint pilgrimage, fastings, flagellations, and the like. But the most odious feature of the religion of those times, was

its horrid cruelty and intolerance, which prompted them to burn their fellow-christians to ashes, because they dared to think for themselves, and to worship God in a manner which they deemed more acceptable than the established forms.

Morals uninfluenced by Religion.

One evidence that the religion of this period had little influence on the morals of the people, is, that perjury prevailed to a degree that is hardly credible; and the obligations of the most solemn oaths were almost wholly disregarded by persons of all ranks. Besides many examples of this in the conduct of Edward IV. and Richard III., all the lords, spiritual and temporal, at the famous Parliament of Shrewsbury, A. D. 1398, called the Great Parliament, took a solemn oath on the cross at Canterbury, never to suffer any of the acts of Parliament to be changed; and yet these same lords, in less than two years after, repealed all these acts. rious ceremonies were invented, to give additional solemnity to oaths, and secure their observation. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, A. D. 1453, took a most tremendous oath, with all the lords and knights of his court, to march an army against the grand Turk; but not one of them performed their oaths. It is no wonder that the common people were so profligate in this respect, that not a few, we are told, lived by swearing for hire in the courts of judicature.

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Propensity to Swearing.

The English were remarkable at this period, among the nations of Europe, for the absurd and impious practice of swearing in conversation. The Count of Luxembourg, accompanied by the Earls of Warwick and Stafford, visited the Maid of Orleans in her prison at Rouen, where she was chained to the floor. The Count, who had sold her to the English, pretended that he had come to treat with her about her ransom. Viewing him with just resentment and disdain, she cried,' Begone! you have neither the inclination nor the power to ransom me.' Then, turning her eyes to the two earls, she said, 'I know that you English are determined to put me to death, and imagine, that after I am dead, you will conquer France. But, though there was a hundred thousand more Goddam-me's in France than there is, they will never conquer that kingdom.' So early had the English got this odious nickname, by their too frequent use of that horrid imprecation.

Otterbourne, a contemporary historian, who had frequently conversed with Henry VI., mentions it as a very extraordinary peculiarity in the character of that prince, that he did not swear in common conversation, but reproved his ministers and officers of state, when he heard them swearing.

Superstitious Credulity.

An excessive credulity still reigned in all the nations of Europe, and particularly in Britain.

There was not a man in England who had the least doubt of the reality of necromancy, and other diabolical arts. In Thomas Walsingham, one of the best historians of this period, the reader will meet with many ridiculous miracles, related as unquestionable facts. And the English were remarkable for one species of credulity peculiar to themselves, a firm belief in the predictions of certain pretended prophets, particularly Merlin.

The English frequently defeated the French in the field, but were generally defeated by them in the cabinet. Philip de Comines observes, that they were but blundering negociators, and by no means a match for the French.

Prevalent Spirit of both British Nations at this period.

A fierce, and even a cruel spirit, too much prevailed in both the British nations at this period. This was owing to the almost constant wars in which they were engaged, which hardened their hearts, inflamed their passions, and familiarised them to slaughter. These battles were uncommonly fierce and sanguinary. Prisoners of distinction were generally put to death in the field of battle, in cold blood. Assassinations were very frequent, perpetrated on persons of the greatest eminence, by kings, nobles, and near relations. Such was the ferocity of those times, that it infected the fair and gentle sex, and made many ladies follow the profession of arms, particularly at the siege of Sens,