large vessels from its mouth to the influx of the Ucayali, and for small craft to the very foot of the mountains, while twenty great rivers, all navigable to their sources, discharge their contents into its stream-thus affording an immense inland navigation of about 50,000 m., and draining an area variously estimated from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 sq. m.

10. Lakes.-There are very few permanent lakes of any magnitude in South America, and those which exist are in general unconnected with the larger river-basins.

On the table-land of Bolivia, at an elevation of 12,847 ft., is Lake Titicaca, next to Sir-i-Kol, in Bokhára, the highest lake in the world, with an area of nearly 4000 sq. m. It is drained by the Desaguadero, which carries its surplus waters to Lake Uros, a smaller sheet of salt water about 200 m. to the S.E. Lake Maracaybo, in the N.W. of Venezuela, has an area of about 5000 sq. m., and is connected with the sea by a narrow channel 12 m. long. Lake Dos Patos, in the S.E. of Brazil, 5000 sq. m., discharges its waters into the Atlantic by a channel named Rio Grande do Sul. There are numerous lakes in La Plata, between the Andes and the river Paraná, the chief of which are Guanacache and Silverio.

11. Climate.-With two-thirds of its area situated between the tropics, the climate of South America is necessarily very hot. Though yielding in this respect to Africa, the corresponding continent of the Old World, the temperature is considerably higher than that of North America; for while the latter has its maximum breadth in the arctic regions, South America attains its greatest width in the torrid zone.

In contradistinction to the other great divisions of the land, the western shores of this continent are considerably colder than the eastern,

owing to the low temperature of the Antarctic Drift Current, which, setting out from the Antarctic Ocean, flows north-eastward against the shores of Chilé, then northward along the coast to the vicinity of the equator. The highest mean annual temperature occurs in the northern parts of Guiana and Venezuela, where it amounts to 81° Fah. South America is also characterised by great moisture, which attains its maximum in the extreme north, where the temperature is highest, but which everywhere more copious on the eastern than on the western side of the Andes. Within the tropics the wide plains on the east are deluged by the heavy periodical rains from November to May, while the narrow margin between the Cordilleras and the Pacific is almost entirely rainless. In some places the deposition of moisture is surprisingly great on the north coast of Dutch Guiana 229 in. fall annually, and in certain localities on the east coast of Brazil no less than 276 in. have been observed. the rainy season, however, is confined to a brief period, the number of clear days is much more considerable than in our temperate climates; while during the long-continued drought that precedes it, the ground is parched, the sun glares with intense radiance, and the wild animals, tormented alike by hunger and thirst, perish in great numbers.

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12. Geology. The geological structure of South America is still less known than that of the northern continent.

It is understood, however, that Crystalline and Granitoid rocks prevail throughout the entire range of the Andes from Panamá to Cape Horn, as also in Colombia, Guiana, and the whole of central and southern Brazil, from the river Paraguay to the Atlantic, and from the 10th degree of south latitude to the Rio de la Plata; that the Palæozoic and Transition series occupy a large portion of the table-land of Peru and Bolivia, around Lake Titicaca, together with a long narrow belt along the eastern flank of the Andes, from the source of the Pilcomaya to the northern frontier of Patagonia, as also a broader tract in the upper basin of the San Francisco; that the Secondary formations are very moderately developed, being confined chiefly to small areas in the central basin of the Orinoco, and along its affluent, the Apuré, to similar patches on both sides of Lake Maracaybo, with a still smaller one in Peru, north of Lima; that Tertiary strata extend in a broad continuous belt lying between the eastern flank of the Andes and the western frontier of Brazil, and from the 5th parallel of north latitude to the 50th degree of south latitude; and that alluvium and modern detritus cover the territory of Buenos Ayres, together with a large portion of the basin of the Amazon.

13. Minerals.-South America has, ever since its discovery, been celebrated for its mineral wealth, and more especially for the abundance of its precious metals.

It was this that excited the cupidity of the Spaniards, and that led to the conquest of Peru in the earlier part of the sixteenth century. Ever since that period till the recent discoveries of gold in California and Australia, a great part of the precious metals used in the world have been brought from America; and, with the exception of the Mexican mines, almost all from the southern continent. The chain of the Andes is richly metalliferous, more especially in the countries of Peru, Bolivia, and Chilé; while Brazil, on the opposite side of the continent, yields to few countries on the globe in regard to the variety and richness of its metals and precious stones. Gold is found in New Granada, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,

Chilé, La Plata. Silver, in Peru, Bolivia, New Granada, Chilé, and La Plata. Tin, in Peru, Chilé, and Brazil. Lead, in Ecuador and Brazil. Copper, in Chilé, Peru, and Brazil. Mercury, in Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil. Iron, in New Granada, Bolivia, Chile, La Plata, and very abundantly in Brazil. Antimony, in Brazil. Coal, in Chilé, Brazil, and New Granada. Sulphur, in Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador. Salt, in La Plata, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. Diamonds are very abundant in Brazil, especially in the province Minas Geraes; and other precious stones in Brazil, Chilé, Peru, New Granada, and Guiana.

14. Botany.-South America is distinguished from the other continents of the globe by its pre-eminently varied and luxuriant vegetation, caused by its tropical heat and abundant moisture, as also by the great number of plants of commercial value indigenous to it, as the cassava or mandioc, from which we obtain tapioca; the cinchona, which yields Peruvian bark; the caoutchouc or india-rubber plant; the maté or Paraguay tea plant; the cacao or chocolate plant, which is also a native of Central America; and the coco-leaf plant, a narcotic used by the native Indians of Bolivia and Peru. The continent embraces no fewer than six of the twenty-five botanical regions of modern botanists-viz., the 15th, 17th, 18th, 20th, 21st, and 22d (see p. 55).

The first of these is the "Mexican region," comprising Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Guiana, and Peru, and extending to the altitude of 5000 ft. The natural orders Cactaceae and Piperaceae are specially abundant; but other tropical orders are less frequent than in corresponding latitudes of the Old World. Among the numerous cultivated plants of this region may be mentioned maize, Guinea-corn, cassava, yams, batatas, arrowroot, plantain, mango, custard-apples, guava, papaw, pine-apple, cashew, tamarind, vine, Indian fig, chocolate, vanilla, capsicum, sugar, coffee, cotton, and tobacco. The next region, called "Humboldt's region," or the region of "Medicinal Herbs," embraces the loftier belt of the Andes, between the altitudes of 5000 and 9000 ft. Here the medicinal barks of commerce, especially Peruvian bark, are very abundant; the cultivated plants of the lower grounds almost entirely disappear, with the exception of maize and coffee; but potatoes, European fruits, and cereals supply their place. Above this is the "region of Escallonia and Calceolaria," embracing the highest elevations of the last-mentioned range, up to 18,000 ft., or the limit of perennial snow. Here tropical forms almost wholly vanish, their place being supplied by the Alpine genera of saxifrages, gentians, mosses, lichens, &c. The fourth, or "Brazilian region," embraces all South America between the Andes and the Atlantic, extending southward to the tropic of Capricorn. This is probably the portion of the globe in which the vegetable kingdom attains its greatest profusion and variety, whether regard be had to the abundance of genera and species, the magnitude of individual forms, the vast extent of the primeval forests, or the numerous climbing and parasitical plants. In place of the few mosses and lichens which cover the trunks and branches of forest - trees in temperate climes, in Brazil they are bearded from the roots to the extremities of the smallest branches with ferns, cactuses, orchids, &c. The cultivated plants are the same as in the Mexican region. The fifth region is named "St Hilaire's region," embracing the portion of South America lying between the tropic of Capricorn and the northern limit of Patagonia. Here the flora approaches in

a remarkable manner to that of Europe, while it differs entirely, except in Chile, from the floras of the corresponding latitudes of Africa and Australia. The last botanical region is the "Patagonian," or "Antarctic," embracing Patagonia, the Fuegian Archipelago, and the Falkland Isles. The vegetation bears a great resemblance to that of Central Europe, while there is a slight approximation to the floras of Southern Africa and Australia.

15. Zoology. This continent forms, with Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies, one of the six zoological kingdoms of modern naturalists. It embraces two provinces of very unequal dimensions -viz., Tropical America, embracing all the countries situated within the tropics, and Austral America, comprising the remainder of the continent.

Of the 1967 existing Mammals, there are 518 found in this zoological kingdom, and of these no fewer than 491 species are peculiar to it. The QUADRUMANA, 74 in number, are all peculiar, and are distinguished from those of the Old World by having prehensile tails, which serve the purpose of a fifth hand. The CARNIVORA, of which there are about 188 species, are nearly all peculiar, and are mostly of small size and fearful of man; the largest of them are the puma and jaguar, the latter being a very formidable animal; but the whole list of savage quadrupeds, so common in Africa and India, is entirely unknown in this continent. Cats, dogs, otters, and skunks are numerous, as also bears, racoons, coatis, and gluttons; while bats are more numerous than in any other part of the world. The MARSUPIALIA are represented by the single family of opossums, which contains 28 species, 27 of which are found here. Of RODENTIA there are 95 species in Brazil alone. The capybara, the largest of the order, inhabits Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay: the utia is found in Cuba; the coypu in Chilé; the chinchilla in Chilé and Peru; the biscacha in Buenos Ayres and Paraguay; the lagotis, viscacha, dusky paca, agouti, acoucha, and cavy, in many places. The ÉDENTATA are represented by the sloth, hairy ant-eater, armadillo, all of which are peculiar to this continent, and by the extinct megatherium and mylodon. The PACHYDERMATA, once so numerous in this continent, as is evidenced by their fossil remains, are now represented by only 4 species-viz., two tapirs and two peccaries. Of the 13 species of RUMINANTS found in this continent, no fewer than 12 are peculiar to it, the most interesting species being the guanaco (which in its tame state is named the llama), the alpaca, the taruga, and the vicuña. When the Spaniards invaded Peru and Chilé they found the llama domesticated and used as a beast of burden; its flesh was eaten, its skin prepared into leather, and its wool spun and woven into cloth. The Ornithology of Tropical America exceeds in splendour that of any other region of the globe, comprising no fewer than 624 species, or one-tenth of all known birds. It is the chosen metropolis of the humming-birds, parrots, toucans, and tanagers. Of rapacious birds the chief is the famous condor of the Andes, one of the most formidable existing species. Huge serpents and other REPTILES abound in the moist and annually inundated plains, the total number in the tropical province being 62. The principal species are the alligator or cayman, boa-constrictor, and rattlesnake, all of which are peculiar to America. The seas, lakes, and rivers abound with FISH of various kinds, which in Brazil and some of the other countries form one of the most important sources of wealth. The varieties of the INSECT tribes are endless-immense centi

pedes, scorpions, spiders, ants, termites, locusts, mosquitoes, and chigoes, being the torment alike of man and beast. Indeed, the vast variety of its insect life forms one of the distinguishing characteristics of this continent.

16. Ethnography. For the people, antiquities, languages, &c., of South America, see under North America (p. 513).

COLOMBIA.

(U. S. OF COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, AND VENEZUELA.) Boundaries.-N., the Caribbean Sea; W., Costa Rica and the Pacific Ocean; S., Peru and Brazil; E., British Guiana. Lat. 12° 28′ N.-5° 40′ S.; lon. 60°-83° W.

Colombia was the name formerly given to those countries in the northwest angle of South America which, under the dominion of Spain, formed the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the Captain-generalcy of the Caracas, and the Province of Quito. They continued in connection with Spain till 1821, when they achieved their independence by the battle of Carabobo, and formed themselves into the Republic of Colombia. After a brief history of 10 years this state was dismembered, and constituted into three distinct republics-New Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela-which maintained their integrity till 1858, when New Granada was broken up into the nine federal republics which now constitute the United States of Colombia. Ecuador, or Equator, was founded in 1831, when the Republic of Colombia was divided into three sections. It was formerly divided into three departments (Guayaquil, Quito, and Assuay), but more recently into 10 provinces. The Republic of Venezuela, consisting of 13 provinces, was established at the same time as Ecuador. Since 1847 it has been the scene of continual intestine dissensions. In 1863 it became a federal republic of seven states, of which five seceded in 1864, and declared themselves independent. We shall adhere, however, to the former arrangement. Bogotá, the cap. of Cundinamarca, and formerly of New Granada, situated near the central parallel, has the same latitude as Cayenne in French Guiana, Capes Palmas and Formosa in the Gulf of Guinea, Magadoxo in Eastern Africa, and Penang in Further India.

Area and Population.-The combined area is estimated at 1,160,037 sq. m., and the aggregate population at 5,505,371. With ten times the area of the British Isles, Colombia contains only one-sixth of their population. For the area and population of the different states, see the table at p. 568.

Political Divisions.-The U. S. of Colombia consists of nine small states; Ecuador, of three departments; and Venezuela, of thirteen provinces.

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA.

PANAMA.-Panamá 12 (G. of Panamá), Aspinwall (Caribbean Sea).