ter with a short account of the various ways or means whereby a word changes its signification, or acquires any new sense, and thus becomes equivocal, especially if it keeps its old sense also.

1. Mere chance sometimes gives the same word different senses; as the word light signifies a body that is not heavy; and it also signifies the effect of sun-beams, or the medium whereby we see objects: this is merely accidental, for there seems to be no connection between these two senses, nor any reason for them.

2. Error and mistake is another occasion of giving various senses to the same word; as when different persons read the names of priest, bishop, church, Easter, &c. in the New Testament, they affix different ideas to them, for want of acquaintance with the true meaning of the sacred writer; though it must be confessed, these various senses, which might arise at first from honest mistake, may be culpably supported and propagated by interest, ambition, prejudice, and a party-spirit on any side.

3. Time and custom alters the meaning of words. Knave heretofore signified a diligent servant (Gnavus ;) and a villain was an under tenant to the Lord of the manor (Villicus;) but now both these words carry an idea of wickedness and reproach to them. A ballad once signified a solemn and sacred song, as well as one that is trivial, when Solomon's song was called the ballad of ballads: but now it is applied to nothing but trifling verse, or comical subjects.

4. Words change their sense by figures and metaphors, which are derived from some real analogy or resemblance between several things, as when wing and flight are applied to riches, it signifies only, that the owner may as easily lose them, as he would lose a bird who flew away with wings.

And I think, under this head we may rank those words which signify different ideas, by a sort of an unaccountable farfetcht analogy, or distant resemblance that fancy has introduced between one thing and another; as when we say, the meat is green, when it is half-roasted; we speak of airing linen by the fire, when we mean drying or warming it : We call for round coals for the chimney, when we mean large square ones; and we talk of the wing of a rabbit, when we mean the fore-leg: The true reason of these appellations we leave to the critics.

5. Words also change their sense by the special occasion of using them, the peculiar manuer of pronunciation, the sound of the voice, the motions of the face, or gestures of the body; so when an angry master says to his servant, it is bravely done! or you are a fine gentleman! he means just the contrary; namely, it is very ill done; you are a sorry fellow; it is one way of giving a severe reproach, for the words are spoken by way of sarcasm or irony.

6. Words are applied to various senses, by new ideas appearing or arising faster than new words are framed. So when gunpowder was found out, the word powder, which before signified only dust, was made then to signify that mixture or composition of nitre, charcoal, &c. And the name canon, which before signified a law or a rule, is now also given to a great gun, which gives laws to nations. So foot-boys, who had frequently the common name of Jack given them, were kept to turn the spit, or to pull off their master's boots; but when instruments were invented for both those services, they were both called jacks, though one was of iron, the other of wood, and very different in their form.

7. Words alter their significations according to the ideas of the various persons, sects, or parties, who use them as we have hinted before; so when a papist uses the word heretics, he generally means the protestants: when a protestant uses the word, he means any persons who were wilfully (and perhaps contentiously) obstinate in fundamental errors. When a Jew speaks of the true religion, he means the institution of Moses; when a Turk mentions it, he intends the doctrine of Mahomet: but when a christian makes use of it, he designs to signify christianity, or the truths and precepts of the gospel.

8. Words have different significations according to the book, writing, or discourse in which they stand. So in a treatise of anatomy, a foot signifies that member in the body of a man: but in a book of geometry or mensuration, it signifies twelve inches.

If I had room to exemplify most of these particulars in one single word, I know not where to choose a fitter than the word sound, which seems, as it were by chance, to signify three distinct ideas, namely, healthy, (from sanus) as a sound body; noise, (from sonus) as a shrill sound; and to sound the sea (perhaps from the French sonde, a probe, or an instrument to find the depth of water.) From these three, which I may call original senses, various derivative senses arise; as sound sleep, sound lungs, sound wind and limb, a sound heart, a sound mind, sound doctrine, a sound divine, sound reason, à sound cask, sound timber, a sound reproof, to beat one soundly, to sound one's meaning or inclination, and a sound or narrow sea; turn these all into Latin, and the variety will appear plain.

I confess, some few of these which I have mentioned as the different springs of equivocal words may be reduced in some cases to the same original: but it must also be granted, that there may be other ways besides these whereby a word comes to extend its signification, to include various ideas, and become equi vocal. And though it is the business of a grammarian to pursue VOL. VII.

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these remarks with more variety and particularity, yet it is also the work of a logician to give notice of these things, lest darkness, confusion, and perplexity, be brought into our conceptions by the means of words, and thence our judgments and reason. ings become erroneous.

CHAP. V.-General Directions relating to our Ideas.

Direction I. FURNISH yourselves with a rich variety of ideas; acquaint yourselves with things ancient and modern; things natural, civil and religious; things domestic and national: things of your native land, and of foreign countries; things present, past, and future, and above all, be well acquainted with God and yourselves; learn animal nature, and the workings of your own spirits.

Such a general acquaintance with things will be of very great advantage.

The first benefit of it is this: it will assist the use of reason in all its following operations; it will teach you to judge of things aright, to argue justly, and to methodise your thoughts with accuracy. When you shall find several things a-kin to each other, and several different from each other, agreeing in some part of their idea, and disagreeing in other parts, you will range your ideas in better order, you will be more easily led into a distinct knowledge of things, and will obtain a rich store of proper thoughts and arguments upon all occasions.

You will tell me, perhaps, that you design the study of the law or divinity; and what good can natural philosophy or mathematics do you, or any other science, not directly subordinate to your chief design? But let it be considered, that all sciences have a sort of mutual connection; and knowledge of all kinds fits the mind to reason and judge better concerning any particular subject. I have known a judge upon the bench betray his ignorance, and appear a little confused in his sentiments about a case of suspected murder brought before him, for want of some acquaintance with animal nature and philosophy.

Another benefit of it is this; such a large and general acquaintance with things will secure you from perpetual admirations and surprizes, and guard you against that weakness of ignorant persons, who have never seen any thing beyond the confines of their own dwelling, and therefore they wonder at almost every thing they see; every thing beyond the smoke of their own chimney, and the reach of their own windows, is new and strange to them.

A third benefit of such an universal acquaintance with things, is this; it will keep you from being too positive and dognatical from an excess of credulity and unbelief, that is, a

readiness to believe, or to deny every thing at first hearing; when you shall have often seen, that strange and uncommon things, which often seemed incredible, are found to be true; and things very commonly received as true, have been found false.

The way of attaining such an extensive treasure of ideas, is, with diligence to apply yourself to read the best books; converse with the most knowing and the wisest of men; and endeavour to improve by every person in whose company you are; suffer no hour to pass away in a lazy idleness, an impertinent chattering or useless trifles: visit other cities and countries when you have seen your own, under the care of one who can teach you to profit by travelling, and to make wise observations; indulge a just curiosity in seeing the wonders of art and nature: search into things yourselves, as well as learn them from others: be acquainted with men as well as books; learn all things as much as you can at first hand; and let as many of your ideas as possible be the representations of things, and not merely the representations of other men's ideas: thus your soul, like some noble building, shall be richly furnished with original paintings, and not with mere copies.

II. Use the most proper methods to retain that treasure of ideas which you have acquired; for the mind is ready to let many of them slip, unless some pains and labour be taken to fix them upon the memory.

And more especially let those ideas be laid up and preserved with the greatest care, which are most directly suited either to your eternal welfare, as a christion, or to your particular station and profession in this life; for though the former rule recommends an universal acquaintance with things, yet it is but a more general and superficial knowledge that is required or expected of any man, in things which are utterly foreign to his own business: but it is necessary you should have a more particular and accurate acquaintance with those things that refer to your peculiar province and duty in this life, or your happiness in another.

There are some persons who never arrive at any deep, solid, or valuable knowledge in any science, or any business in life, because they are perpetually fluttering over the surface of things, in a curious and wandering search of infinite variety; ever hearing, reading, or asking after something new, but impatient of any labour to lay up and preserve the ideas they have. gained their souls may be compared to a looking-glass, that wheresoever you turn it, it receives the images of all objects, but retains none.

In order to preserve your treasure of ideas, and the knowledge you have gained, pursue the following advices, especially in your younger years.

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1. Recollect every day the things you have seen, or heard, or read, which may have made an addition to your understanding read the writings of God and men with diligence and perpetual reviews: be not fond of hastening to a new book, or a new chapter, till you have well fixed and established in your minds what was useful in the last make use of your memory in this manner, and you will sensibly experience a gradual improvement of it, while you take care not to load it to excess.

2. Talk over the things which you have seen, heard, or learnt, with some proper acquaintance. This will make a fresh impression upon your memory; and if you have no fellowstudent at hand, none of equal rank with yourselves, tell it over to any of your acquaintance, where you can do it with propriety and decency; and whether they learn any thing by.. it or no, your own repetition of it will be an improvement to yourself and this practice also will furnish you with a variety of words, and copious language to express your thoughts upon all

occasions.

3. Commit to writing some of the most considerable improvement which you daily make, at least such hints as may recal them again to your mind, when perhaps they are vanished and lost. And here I think Mr. Locke's method of adversaria, or common-places, which he describes in the end of the first olume of his Posthumous Works, is the best; using no learned method at all, setting down things as they occur, leaving a distinct page for each subject, and making an index to the pages.

At the end of every week, or month, or year, you may review your remarks for these reasons; first, to judge of your own improvement; when you shall find that many of your younger collections are either weak and trifling or if they are just and proper, yet they are grown now so familiar to you, that you will thereby see your own advancement in knowledge. And in the next place, what remarks you find there worthy of your riper observation, you may note them with a marginal star, instead of transcribing them, as being worthy of your second year's review, when the others are neglected.

To shorten something of this labour, if the books which you read are your own, mark with a pen or pencil the most considerable things in them which you desire to remember. Thus you may read that book the second time over with balf the trouble, by your eye running over the paragraphs which your pencil has noted. It is but a very weak objection against this practice to say, I shall spoil my book; for I persuade myself, that you did not buy it as a bookseller to sell it again for gain, but as a scholar to improve your mind by it; and if the mind be improved, your