morwenynge," and entering upon his dreams or visions. The date may be pretty nearly fixed. In one place there is an allusion to the treaty of Bretigny made with France in 1360, and to the military disasters of the previous year which led to it; in another passage mention is made of a remarkable tempest which occurred on the 15th of January, 1362, as of a recent event. "It is probable," to quote Mr. Wright, "that the poem. of Piers Ploughman was composed in the latter part of this year, when the effects of the great wind were fresh in people's memory, and when the treaty of Bretigny had become a subject of popular discontent."* We may assume, at least, that it was in hand at this time. We cannot attempt an analysis of the work. It consists, in Mr. Wright's edition, where the long line of the other editions is divided into two, of 14,696 verses, distributed into twenty sections, or Passus as they are called. Each passus forms, or professes to form, a separate vision; and so inartificial or confused is the connection of the several parts of the composition (notwithstanding Dr. Whitaker's notion that it had in his edition "for the first time been shown that it was written after a regular and consistent plan"), that it may be regarded as being in reality not so much one poem as a succession of poems. The general subject may be said to be the same with that of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, the exposition of the impediments and temptations which beset the crusade of this our mortal life; and the method, too, like Bunyan's, is the allegorical; but the spirit of the poetry is not so much picturesque, or even descriptive, as satirical. Vices and abuses of all sorts come in for their share of the exposure and invective; but the main attack throughout is directed against the corruptions of the church, and the hypocrisy and worldliness, the ignorance, indolence, and sensuality, of the ecclesiastical order. To this favourite theme the author constantly returns with new affection and sharper zest from any less high matter which he may occasionally take up. Hence it has been commonly assumed that he must have himself belonged to the ecclesiastical profession, that he was probably a priest or monk. And his Vision has been regarded not only as mainly a religious poem, but as almost a puritanical and Protestant work, although produced nearly two centuries before either Protestanism or Puritanism was ever heard of. In this notion, as we have seen, it was brought into such repute at the time of the Reformation that three editions of it were printed in one year. There is nothing, however, of anti-Romanism, properly * Introduction, p. xii. so called, in Langland, either doctrinal or constitutional; and even the anti-clerical spirit of his poetry is not more decided than what is found in the writings of Chaucer, and the other popular literature of the time. In all ages, indeed, it is the tendency of popular literature to erect itself into a power adverse to that of the priesthood, as has been evinced more especially by the poetical literature of modern Europe from the days of the Provençal troubadours. In the Canterbury Tales, however, and in most other works where this spirit appears, the puritanism (if so it is to be called) is merely one of the forms of the poetry; in Piers Ploughman the poetry is principally a form or expression of the puritanism. The rhythm or measure of the verse in this poem must be considered as accentual rather than syllabical-that is to say, it depends rather upon the number of the accents than of the syllables. This is, perhaps, the original principle of all verse; and it still remains the leading principle in various kinds of verse, both in our own and in other languages. At first, probably, only the accented syllables were counted, or reckoned of any rhythmical value; other syllables upon which there was no emphasis went for nothing, and might be introduced in any part of the verse, one, two, or three at a time, as the poet chose. Of course it would at all times be felt that there were limits beyond which this licence could not be carried without destroying or injuring the metrical character of the composition; but these limits would not at first be fixed as they now for the most part are. The elementary form of the verse in Piers Ploughman demands a succession of four accented syllables-two in the first hemistich or short line, and two in the second; but, while each of those in the first line is usually preceded by either one or two unaccented syllables, commonly only one of those in the second line is so preceded. The second line, therefore, is for the most part shorter than the first. And they also differ in regard to the alliteration: it being required that in the first both the accented or emphatic syllables, which are generally initial syllables, should begin with the same letter, but that in the second only the first accented syllable should begin with that letter. This is the general rule; but, either from the text being corrupt or from the irregularity of the composition, the exceptions are very numerous. The poem begins as follows: In a summer season, I shoop me into shrowds1 Of fairy me thought. A marvellous sweven," Wist I never where: And, as I beheld into the east On high to the sun, I seigh12 a tower on a toft13 A deep dale beneath, 14 With deep ditches and darke, And dreadful of sight. A fair field full of folk Found I there between, 11 put myself into clothes. 2 A shepherd. 3 Whitaker's interpretation is, "in habit, not like an anchorite who keeps his cell, but like one of those unholy hermits who wander about the world to see and hear wonders." He reads, "That went forth in the worl," &c. 6 Worn out with wandering. 14 Handsomely built. 15 Working. Laboured. In setting and sowing With gluttony destroyeth.2 In prayers and penances All for the love of our Lord Liveden full strait,5 As anchors and heremites? For no likerous liflode Hir likame to please.9 That swich me thriveth.12 Ac japers and jaugellers16 And fools hem maketh, To werken if they wold. But qui loquitur turpiloquium19 2 Wan that which wasters with gluttony destroy. 3 Came disguised. Whitaker reads, "In countenance and in clothing." 4 Many put them, applied themselves to, engaged in. 5 Lived full strictly. • The bliss of the kingdom of heaven. 7 Anchorites and eremites or hermits. 8 Hold them in their. 10 Merchandise. 12 That such men thrive. 9 By no likerous living their body to please. 11 Achieved their end. 13 And some are skilled to make mirths, or amusements, as minstrels. 14 And get gold with their minstrelsy. 16 But jesters and jugglers. 19 Whoso speaketli ribaldry. 17 Have their. 15 Believe. 20 Our modern kind, or servant. 1 Petitioners. Bidders1 and beggars Fast about yede,2 With hir bellies and hir bags Tho Roberd's knaves;5 Plighten hem togider3 All hir life after. I seigh some that seiden" They had y-sought saints: It seemed by hir speech. And hir wenches after; That loath were to swink,14 To be knowen from other, All the four orders, Preaching the people For profit of hem selve 2 Went. 3 Flattered. 4 Rise with ribaldry. 5 Those Robertsmen-a class of malefactors mentioned in several statutes of the fourteenth century. The name may have meant originally Robin Hood's men, as Whitaker conjectures. 6 Sloth. 8 Gather them together. 10 To lie. 7 Pursue. 9 They went forth on their way. 11 I saw some that said. 15 Made themselves. 12 In every tale that they told their tongue was trained to lie. 13 In a crowd. 14 Labour. |