From A. D.

History. themselves. Eugene and Villars, though for different reasons, concurred in the opinion, which they did not fail to make public, that" questions of religious belief belonged to the internal affairs of a people, and could not with propriety be considered in treaties between one nation and another, who, when they made peace, were not in the habit of inquiring whether one village more or less belonged to this or that communion."*

1699.

to

A. D. 1721. Opinion of Villars and Eugene.

Death of

Queen
Anne.

Aug. 2,

The Duke

of Marl

borough is

reinstated.

Death of

A. D. 1715.

Further

Thus terminated this unsatisfactory war. As, amidst the multitude of treaties concluded about this time, there was not one arranged between Austria and Spain, it was evident that Europe could not anticipate a lasting peace. In point of fact, this very circumstance was sufficient of itself to give a fluctuating character to the continental policy of the period, and we shail presently have to occupy ourselves with fresh animosities, and treaties scarcely less involved, arising out of the insufficient conclusion arrived at by the treaties of Utrecht and Baden.

The latter peace had hardly been concluded when news arrived of the death of Anne of England. The accession of George I. and the fall of the Tory government occurred too late to influence the conditions already agreed to. The Duke of Marlborough returned to England,tand was reinstated in all his former appointments: by the Peace of Baden, however, he lost the Lordship of Mindelheim, which place, under the condition of the status quo, reverted to the Elector of Bavaria.

In the following year expired a monarch who had Louis XIV. outlived his good fortune. On the 1st of September Sept. 1. died Louis XIV., in the sixty-fourth year of his reign, and the seventy-eighth of his age. The stirring circumstances of his reign, the distinct character of his age, and the consequences of both upon Europe in general, are too important to be passed over in silence. We shall, therefore, seize an opportunity to delineate these facts as briefly as is consistent with their importance. For the present we cannot perceive that pause in events which would justify us in arresting the current of the narrative.‡ We have stated that the Barrier Treaty was conproceedings certed between the Maritime Powers in the first inin regard to the Barrier Stance, and subsequently between them and France, Treaty. without the concurrence of the Emperor. When, in July 1714, a formal notification was made, through the Imperial minister at the Hague, to the Court of Vienna, Charles-indignantly refused to become a party to it, but at the same time proposed a conference on the subject, which was accordingly held at Antwerp immediately after the Peace of Baden. The death of Anne inspired the Emperor with hopes of evading the treaty altogether. Charles was persuaded, partly by the boasting professions of the Jacobites, and partly by his own strong desire, to believe the chance of the Pretender so strong as to render further negotiations with George I. unnecessary. The rebellion of 1715 encouraged him so far as to threaten the march of some Austrian troops towards the Netherlands, and it was not until he heard of the decisive overthrow of the rebels in England, and received the news of the death of Louis, that he consented to treat with the allies on the terms proposed.

The Emperor wishes to evade it.

Pfister, Ibid. 173, 174. For the Peace of Baden, see Coxe, Heeren, and Menzel.

†The Duke had withdrawn himself from England in the previous year, and had taken up his residence in Germany.

Part of an ensuing Chapter is devoted to this purpose

4.1.

1791

Fel

Tem

By the terms of this treaty, Austria received all the Provinces which had belonged to Charles II. of Spain, Is with the addition of the greater part of the places taken accede a during the war with France. A large corps, consisting N. of not less than thirty thousand men, was to be maintained, whereof the Emperor furnished three-fifths, and lil. the States the remainder. In certain towns the sole right of garrison was secured to the States, who were 1716 also permitted to repair the dismantled fortifications, but not to erect new works. The annual sum of five the B hundred thousand crowns was promised by the Emperor Tren towards the payment of the Dutch troops. The rights of commerce between the Netherlands and Great Britain were to remain on their present footing, until a new treaty, to be presently concluded, should make a different arrangement. Finally, the Emperor solemnly engaged not to transfer these Provinces to a Prince of the House of Bourbon, either by sale, marriage, or otherwise.

It was,

03

To these conditions the Emperor acceded, as we have Rees said; but it was far from his intention to fulfil them. Accordingly, almost immediately fresh negotiations were" opened with the Dutch, which, however, though protracted over a period of three years, failed of giving a new character to this obnoxious measure. therefore, ever afterwards urged at Vienna that the Barrier Treaty enjoined upon the Emperor a very heavy expense, whilst he received in return a very questionable equivalent. The pride of Austria was humiliated by the reflection of playing the part of a puppet in the hands of the Maritime Powers, who far more than any part of Germany were interested in the maintenance of a barrier. It cannot, therefore, surprise us that upon all subsequent occasions the Austrians, like their predecessors the Spanish, offered little or no resistance to the aggressions of France in this quarter; and that this treaty failed entirely of its objects, while it fomented the growing ill-will which excessive haughtiness on the one hand, and a greedy self-interest on the other, were silently bringing about between Austria and the Maritime Powers.t

In the mean while the storm, which the Emperor had foreseen from the side of Turkey, burst upon the territories of Venice. In the year 1715, the Turks overran jur the Morea, and laid siege to Corfu. In their extremity the Venetians applied for succour to the Emperor, as guarantee to the Peace of Carlowitz, and before he T could return them an answer, the Pope, conveniently oblivious of former disagreements, entreated aid against a swarm of infidels that threatened the Papal States. Perhaps neither emergency would have induced Charles A to renew the dangerous pastime of war, had not his own danger drawn him into the common cause. Whilst he hesitated, and the Diet debated, the Turks declared war against himself, and the malcontents of Hungary

These were Namur, Tournay, Menin, Furnes, Warneton, Ypres, and the fort of Knocque. Dendermond was jointly gai soned, under an Austrian governor.

This treaty is ably related by Coxe, Ibid. vol. iv. ch. lxxxi.

the 67

From 1. D.

699.

to

. D. 721.

ein.

5.

ne

ssful.

of

ade.

D.

17.

*

istory. joined the standard of the Crescent. Three distinct corps burst into Poland, Hungary, and Dalmatia: Rome and Vienna were alike threatened. Fortunately for the Empire, Eugene still lived, and at this moment was not entirely without a force sufficient for the purpose. Assisted by the bravest spirits of Germany, among whom Prince Alexander of Wirtemberg is mentioned by name, he took the field, and was presented by the Emperor with a crucifix, as the surest emblem of vicory of tory. Quickly traversing Hungary, he encamped near Peter Peterwardein, behind the very entrenchments which he had occupied in his former campaign. In the ensuing engagement discipline prevailed over valour, and the Turks were defeated, as usual losing more in the flight than in the action itself. The Grand Vizir perished in the mêlée.† After taking Temeswar, which for the last one hundred and sixty-four years had been in the hands of the Turks, Eugene overran the Bannat, and concluded this brilliant campaign with the conquest of part of Servia and Wallachia. The following year, the Imperialists renewed the attack and laid siege to Belgrade, the key of the Ottoman possessions on the side of Hungary. Whilst Eugene was delayed before this place, there arrived a fresh Vizir with a numerous and wellsupplied army, which threatened to overwhelm the diminished numbers of the besieging party. To add to their distress a sort of plague broke out in the confined camp of the Imperialists, and the Turks, daily advancing, at length dug their trenches and erected batteries within musket shot. At this crisis the brave Eugene determined on a resource that had hitherto never failed him. He determined on giving battle to the enemy. Early the next morning the action commenced, under cover of a thick mist, which, though at first propitious to a sudden attack, by its obstinate continuance had nearly proved fatal to the separated ranks of the Christians. Irks When, however, it cleared, Eugene restored order, and erly with it confidence to his troops. His own personal exertions were available in bringing together the scattered wings of his army, and his example was still more serviceable in adding ardour to the disciplined onset of his men. The Turkish lines were stormed, their own cannon turned against themselves, and an immense slaughter able made of their flying troops. Two days afterwards Belgrade yielded itself. Orsova was taken without the loss of a man. General Petrasch drove the Turks out of of Tabaz, Semendria, Ram, and Widden. The Sultan, in w- despair at such astonishing loss occurring just when he looked for complete success, begged for peace, which, under the mediation of the Maritime Powers, was concluded the following year at Passarowitz, a small town in Servia. By this treaty a truce was agreed upon for twenty years. To the House of Austria were secured the Bannat of Temeswar, a part of Servia and Wal. lachia as far as the Aluta, with the town and territory de of Belgrade. Venice, neglected by the Emperor, paid y the expenses of the war by the cession of the Morea, which remained in the hands of the Turks. It is to this culpable neglect that we owe the present condition * The Emperor presented it with the words, "Under this shall you command this time:" a recollection probably of Constantine's τουτῷ νίκα.

of

de.

3

; of tory.

3.

es

He deserved his fate, if it be true, as stated by Pfister, that immediately previous to the battle he beheaded his prisoner, General Breuwen, and treated his corpse with indignity.

Coxe says twenty-five years, Pfister twenty-four. The point is not important, except as marking the singular contradictions to be met with in historical records. We have followed Heeren.

of Greece, and that state of political degradation through- Annals of out this once glorious Peninsula, which resists, and will Germany. for a long time baffle, all attempts at regeneration from without, and all national efforts at independence.

From

A. D.

1699. to

A. D.

1721.

XII.

A. D.

1709.

Sweden

ern allies.

Very shortly after the Peace of Passarowitz, Charles XII. of Sweden fell in the trenches before Fredericshall. We took leave of that monarch at the moment when he was preparing to quit Saxony, and to carry his vengeance into the heart of Russia. We stated that when Affairs of next we took up the thread of his history it would be Charles for the purpose of recording his reverses. The first severe check he received after leaving Alt-Ranstädt was at Pultawa, which Charles invested, and which Peter hastened to relieve. In the battle that ensued the Battle of former was routed, and had leisure in the bosom of those Pultawa. solitary forests to lament the facility with which he had July 8. listened to the Hetman Mazeppa. Defeat at any time, and under any circumstances, is fatal to the fortunes of a monarch who acts habitually on the offensive. In Consethis case, the news of the discomfiture of the Swedes on quences to the borders of the Ukraine was the signal for the break- throughout ing off all compulsory and galling treaties. The terror Germany. of Sweden was loosened, as if the spell which induced it had suddenly ceased to exist. The Danes forgot the Treaty of Travendal, and Saxony the conferences of Alt-Ranstädt: Augustus reascended the throne of Poland, and his rival went into voluntary retirement. Peter was contented with Livonia for the present, and Projects of with gigantic hopes for the future. So far no one could the Northcomplain: but when the allies, after interchanging fresh treaties of mutual co-operation, armed themselves for retaliation on their distant and defenceless enemy, it could not escape the Emperor that the tide of the Northern contest might yet roll Southward, and mingle with the War of the Succession. With this impression a Treaty of treaty was proposed and carried into effect at the Hague, under the mediation of the Maritime Powers and the Emperor, between the senate of Sweden, the allies, and the Empire, by which the neutrality of the Swedish-German Provinces was guaranteed, and a passage through Germany refused to the Russians. A short time after, this treaty was enlarged by the accession of Prussia, Mayence, the Palatinate, and Hanover; an army of from fifteen to twenty thousand men being appointed to enforce the neutrality. Charles, at that Disowned. time an unwelcome and an unwilling guest to the Porte, by Charles, contemptuously refused the proffered truce, and replied by threats too distant to be alarming." The Northern allies, taking up the protest which Charles laid before the Emperor and the Diet as a challenge, and probably not sorry so to regard it, immediately broke through their involuntary neutrality, and flew to arms. The Further enKing of Denmark occupied Delmenhorst, and invested croachWismar. Augustus appeared before Strelitz with a the allies. mixed corps of Saxons, Poles, and Russians. All this while Charles was not idle. By repeated and urgent War deapplications he prevailed at length on the Divan to declare war against Russia, and Peter would have been Russia and ruined at Pruth but for the ability of his wife, the Em- the Porte. press Catharine, and the avarice of the Turkish general. Dec.

From A. D.

to

History. Charles arrived on the field in time to see the Russians march off unmolested. In vain he attempted to break the peace that ensued; it was even further ratified under the mediation of the Maritime Powers. After some un1699. important military operations between the allies and the Swedish generals, a second congress was convened at Brunswick, at the instance of the Emperor, with a view to bring back the several Powers to the conditions of the Treaty of the Hague. During its sitting the new King of Prussia, William I.,* sequestrated Wismar and Stettin in his character of a neutral, and joined the Northern Alliance.

A. D. 1721. Convention of Pruth.

July 24.

A. D. 1711.

Further ratified. April 16.

A. D.

Jan.

At this crisis Charles XII. returned from his wanderings of fifteen years, and on his arrival at Stralsund made immediate preparations to free Stettin. His hostile attitude drove the King of Prussia to conclude a 1712. fresh treaty with Denmark and Saxony, having for its Congress of Brunswick, object the further humiliation of the King of Sweden. At the same time a somewhat anomalous transaction brought a powerful ally to the Northern confederacy. Denmark, after taking Bremen and Verden, had sold them to Hanover, and in order to preserve this bargain, not only Hanover but its late Elector, the present King of England, was forced to enter into an alliance with Prussia and Russia, and jointly with them to declare war against Sweden.

A. D.

1713.

Charles returns to Stralsund. Nov. 22. A. D.

1714.

Treaty

between

Prussia, Denmark, Saxony, and Han

over.

Feb.

A. D. 1715. Stralsund is taken. Dec. Further

A. D. 1716.

the Czar.

Inter

Attacked on all sides, Charles was forced to yield to circumstances, and to return to his own land. Immediately Stralsund, which eighty-seven years previously had repulsed the fiery assault of Wallenstein, capitu lated: Wismar was taken by the Danes, and Cajaneburg, the last remaining place in Finland, fell into the hands of the Russians.

Here was the conclusion of Sweden's continental sway. Her last Province was taken from her, and of the glorious achievements of the Thirty Years' War there remained only the fame of the Great Gustavus, and an insignificant corner of Pomerania. But sudden progress of success is not remarkable for teaching men moderation. the allies. The allies still pressed forward. Schonen was attacked Investment of Schonen, by the Danes, in conjunction with the Russians, and, but for the lukewarm or treacherous conduct of the latter, would have been taken. The Czar, no doubt Suspicious having a more important object in view than the deconduct of pression of Sweden, was engaged in the project of establishing himself in Germany, at the same time that he made himself master of the Baltic. Jealousy of his ference of intention caused a third interference on the part of the Empire. They represented in strong colours the inpire. Sept. expediency of his occupying Wismar, (a scheme which the Czar proposed,) and complained of his quartering a large body of Russians on the territory of Mecklenburg under the pretence of assisting the reigning Duke against a revolt of his subjects. In answer Peter made the most ample offers of compensation and satisfaction: Livonia itself should be restored to the Emperor and the Empire, on condition of his being gratified in return with a seat and a voice at the Diet. But the Empire had a truer sense of their real interests than to admit so questionable a Peer. In reply to his solicitations, the Emperor called upon the Circles of Saxony and Westphalia to make a hostile demonstration in case the Czar did not evacuate Mecklenburg, and pay a certain sum

the Em

* Frederic III. died February 25, 1713. The last hours of this strange Prince are fully described by Horn, Ibid. p. 270282.

Germany, From

A. D.

1699.

A. D.

A. D.

1717.

The Bana

pro

in lieu of the great damage done by his marauding Annals of troops. The year following Peter removed the greater part of his army, and the negotiations terminated. In the mean while a personage was making himself conspicuous at the court of Sweden, of whose extraordinary life history possesses no certain account.* The most that is known of the Baron Görz is that he was ambitious, and that he was unfortunate. Whether 1721. he was altogether trustworthy cannot safely be decided; The C at any rate this minister of the Duke of Holstein Got- leaves torp soon became the confidential adviser of Charles, Meckes burg. and gained such an influence over the warlike monarch as to entangle him in negotiations, and in a tortuous and complicated system of politics foreign to his nature. It is not easy to determine, upon the data we possess, Gorz what were the ulterior views of Görz. At present he His had opened communications with Alberoni, with Russia, jects. and with the Pretender! At Aaland a secret treaty recon- Treaty of ciled (in appearance) the Czar and the King of Sweden. The latter was forced to abdicate in favour of the former some of his fairest conquests, but this concession was not made without hopes of recompense. In further- Death of ance of the designs then concerted, Charles departed for Charles the conquest of Norway, and fell almost immediately before Fredericshall. His Regency, foreseeing nothing but disaster from the complicated schemes of which the master-spirit was no more, broke at once with Russia, Gorz is and dragged Görz to the scaffold. That adventurer, headed for we can hardly look upon him as any thing else, appeared upon the Northern stage too late to effect the schemes he meditated. Had Charles begun life with such a counsellor, who shall say what might have been in our day the relative positions of Sweden and Russia.†

Aaland.

May.

A. D.

1718.

XII.

Dec. il.

A. D.

1718

gency

Ulrica

Ele era to

The death of Charles broke in fragments the frail The Re remains of Sweden's by-gone policy. The Regency, setting aside Frederic of Holstein Gottorp, nephew and heir of Charles, called to the throne his youngest sister, the throat. Ulrica Eleonora, under such restrictions of the prerogative as changed a despotic monarchy into a representative government. At the same time England was applied to, to take the place of the alliance which was renounced with Russia. Under her mediation a series Series of treaties was concluded between Sweden and Russia, treaties Hanover, Denmark, and Poland. Bremen and Verden became permanently annexed to Hanover, on payment and the to Sweden of a million rix-dollars. Prussia retained Norbera Stettin and Pomerania as far as the Peene. Denmark Powers restored its conquests to Sweden, but was guaranteed in the possession of Sleswick, and received six hundred thousand dollars.‡

Germany,

From

A. D. 1699.

the influence of Sweden: has she gained a better neigh- Annals of bour? The answer to that question resolves the problems involved in the important changes which have raised Russia to the rank of a first-rate Power. The political depression of Sweden has proved far more important to Europe than her brief though busy exaltation. The cannon-ball of Fredericshall, in depriving the North of the sole counterpoise to the ambition and the vast resources of Russia, has opened a path which that Power is every day widening and extending, and whose limits are unexplored only because they are indefinite.

to

A. D. 1721.

From

A. D.

1530.

A. H.

937.

to

A. D. 1722.

A. H. 1134.

History. WHILE, as we have related in chap. ci., one branch of the descendants of Timúr founded a new Empire in Hindústan, the elder branch was deprived of the Kingdom of Persia, and consigned to hopeless obscurity. The Uzbeks, who had driven Baber from his dominions, compelled Baidezunnan, the last of Timúr's race who ruled in Irán, to seek safety in a foreign country. For a short time he established himself at Tabriz, but when that city was taken by the Ottoman Emperor Selím, he was sent a prisoner to Constantinople, where he died. Persia was laid waste by the feuds of the Uzbek conDistracted querors, who were divided into the hostile tribes of Kárá Koinlú and Ak Koinlú, or "the tribes of the black and white sheep," so called from their carrying the figures of these animals on their respective standards. Uzun Hassan, the chief of the "white-sheep" tribe, triumphed over all his competitors, and became sovereign of a great part of the dominions of the House of Timur. He then turned his arms in the direction of Turkey, but he was defeated by Mohammed II., and compelled Death of to sto short in his career of ambition. After the Uzun Has- death of Uzun Hassan, his sons, grandsons, and nephews contended with each other for his dominions, A. D. and by their dissensions not only accelerated their own 1478. ruin, but prepared the way for the establishment of a new dynasty in Persia.

state of Persia.

san.

A. H. 883. Origin of the Suffavean dynasty.

The family of Shah Ismael, the founder of the Suffavean dynasty, traced its descent from Alí, the son-in-law of the Prophet, through Mousa, the seventh Imám. They lived as retired devotees at Ardebil, and collected around them multitudes of disciples, attracted by their reputation for sanctity and learning. Sadder-ed-din, whose name signifies “pre-eminent in faith," was so renowned, that Timúr, on his return from his western conquests, visited his cell, and offered him a choice of any favour that an Emperor could bestow. "Release those prisoners you have brought from Turkey" was the humane reply of the holy man. His request was granted; and the grateful tribes, thus released, became devoted adherents of the family of him to whom they owed their deliverance from the horrors of slavery. The popu. larity of the Suffavean family brought upon them the 1499. jealous hostility of the Uzbek Princes; they were persecuted and driven into exile. At length Ismael, anxious to revenge the death of his elder brothers, assem

A. D.

A. H. 905.

ста

The Suffavean monarchs had a powerful advantage gr in their claims to religious veneration as descendants of Mohammed, through his favourite daughter Fatima, 1.2 and their supposed adherence to the "Suffean" or pure 1 principles of Islamism as they were transmitted by Ali and the Imáms, in opposition to the series of traditions! adopted by the Khaliph Omar and his adherents. A Though the name of Shiah, or "sectary," given to the partisans of Ali by the Sonnite or orthodox Mussulmans, had long been a term of reproach, it was adopted as an honourable title by the supporters of the new dynasty, and with it were associated the pride of religion and the hopes of national independence. Ismael took full advantage of the double enthusiasm which he had thus kindled; he subdued Bagdad and the adjacent territories; he then turned his arms Eastwards, rescued Khorassan from the Uzbeks, and extended his conquests to the city of Balkh. But the rapid success of Ismael alarmed Selim, Sultan of Turkey, and at the same time the Sonnite Mussulmans loudly denounced the revival of the Shiah heresy. Ismael's pride tended greatly to increase both the political and religious animosity; he used publicly to declare that, "as there is but one God in heaven, so ought there to be but one King on earth;" he appropriated to himself the title of Suffi or Sofi, that is, "the purely religious;" and in derision of the Turkish creed he kept a hog in his court, which he called by a Turkish name. After an interchange of abusive manifestoes, the rival monarchs prepared for war. Their armies met on the frontiers of Azerbiján, and after a sanguinary battle the Persians were totally defeated. Selim, pursuing his good fortune, captured several important places in the North and West of Persia; but deeming the conquest of Egypt more important than these acquisitions, he withdrew his forces and marched against the Mameluke Sultans. Ismael, however, never recovered from the melancholy produced by his defeat; the only enterprise he under