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her children's fall (WHITTIER); so too in Byron and others. Also wisdom is feminine: Wisdom, What is she, but the means of Happiness? (YOUNG). The termination ship (Anglosaxon scipe, m.) so rarely of determinate gender, becomes feminine in friendship: This carries Friendship to her noontide point (YOUNG).

Substantives ending in the derived th (Anglosaxon ), many whereof point to Anglosaxon feminines, and wherein the derivation is still sensible, have retained pretty decidedly the feminine gender, as wealth, health, truth, sloth, youth; to which is also added the Romance faith: When wanton wealth her mightiest deeds had done (L. BYRON). Sloth drew her pillow o'er her head (WHITTIER). Ere youth had lost her face (L. BYRON). Faith, she herself from on high is descended (LONGFELLOW). With a correct feeling the usage of the tongue separates death (Anglosaxon deáð, m.) from the above words, and uses it mostly in the masculine, as Milton, Young, Byron, Longfellow &c., although it is sometimes taken as feminine; compare: The painful family of Death more hideous than their queen (GRAY). It is remarkable that the older language often deviates with regard to those feminines: Truthe is therinne.. he is fader of feith (PIERS PLOUPHM. p. 15.). Sleuthe.. An hard assaut he made (p. 438.). Feith.. he fleigh aside (p. 351.). Welthe.. wolde bere hymselfe to bolde (SKELTON Ï. 229.). Sloth, as a concrete substantive, is masculine.

B) Abstract terms, which either have no derivative termination, or in which it is no longer felt as such by linguistic consciousness, or, finally, those whose derivative termination has no definite gender, are still frequently used in poetry as masculine or feminine. Many masculines aud neuters pass over into the feminine gender, a few feminines, on the contrary, are masculine. Words of all three original genders are here and there fluctuating. We cite examples, having regard to their original gender, without respect to the distinctions of notion. 1) Anglosaxon masculines appear masculine: hunger, thirst, sleep, dream (Anglosaxon dreám, m., gaudium), anger (Anglosaxon only ang-niss), fear, lust (Anglosaxon lust, m.; lyst, f), laughter, pride, the original neuter murder and the undefineable in gender want (Old-norse vanta, deesse); likewise the Romance masculines: order, danger, character, power, use, vice, commerce, spirit, sport (Old-French deport, m.), despair (compare French désespoir). Examples: Sleep give thee all his rest (SHAKSPEARE Mids. Ñ. Dr.). And let some strange mysterious dream Wave at his wings an airy stream &c. (MILTON). Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire (COLLINS). First Fear, his hand, his skill to try, Amid the chords bewildered laid (ID). Laughter, holding both his sides (MILTON). Pride brandishes the favours he confers (YOUNG). Wither'd murder, Alarum'd by his sentinel, the wolf (SHAKSPEARE Macb.). Power at thee has launched his bolts (BRYANT). Grey-bearded Use.. Leaned on his staff and wept (WHITTIER).

Son of Eternity.. the Spirit Tugs at his chains (LONGFELLOW). And Sport leapt up and seized his beechen spear (COLLINS). With woeful measures wan Despair. . his grief beguiled (ID.).

Yet even here transitions into the feminine gender are found, and we find, for instance: pride, fear, murder, power, vice, commerce, spirit, despair often used in the feminine: Which

Vice

makes weariness forget his toil And fear her danger (L. BYRON). But here, where Murder breathed her bloody steam (I). Daughter of Jove, relentless Power (GRAY). Within walls Power dwelt amidst her passions (L. BYRON). that digs her own voluptuous tomb (ID.). When the trembling spirit wings her flyght (ROGERS). Despair extends her raven wing (THOMSON).

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Among the original feminines, which become masculine, are the Anglosaxon heat, love (perhaps not without the influence of the personification of love) care, war, the Romance fraud. Instances: Tyrant Heat. his burning influence darts On man &c. (THOMSON). Love has no gift so grateful as his wings (L. BYRON). Ere War uprose in his volcanic rage (L. BYRON). And War shall lay his pomp away (BRYANT). Fraud from his secret chambers fled (WHITTIER).

Here and their we find the feminine gender, as, for instance, of war. 2) A number of Anglosaxon feminines commonly remain feminine, as, mind (Anglosaxon n. and f., Old-norse f.), law, rest, sin, sorrow, soul and especially Romance ones, as, revenge. rage, peace, pain, prayer, fame, form, fortune, misfortune, virtue, trade (?), disease (Old-French desaise), joy, concord, discord, quiet (Old-French quiete) and others. The transition into the masculine gender is here a rarer exception, although it occurs. Compare: The mighty Mind, that son of Heav'n (YOUNG). The eternal mind Who veils his glory with the elements (BRYANT); as often in the even in Anglosaxon double-gendered mind. Revenge impatient rose. He threw his blood-stained sword in thunder down (COLLINS) Last came Joy's ecstatic trial: He.. First to the lively pipe his hand addressed (ID.).

Some Anglosaxon neuters pass over into the feminine gender, as, evil, life, wit, as well as some which might belong to the masculine or neuter grammatical genus. as, thought, wrong, and the masculine will, guilt, knowledge (Oldnorse kunnleiki, m.), hope, slumber and slaughter (?). Still more numerous are the Romance masculines: art, exploit, repose, pardon, praise, fate, delight, sense, strife, carnage, crime, habit &c. The adjectives used as substantives ideal, ridicule, also words like havoc, scorn and others. Instances: Then well may Life Put on her plume (YOUNG). Hail, memory, hail! . . Thought and her shadowy brood thy call obey (ROGERS). The mark where wrong Aim'd with her poison'd arrows (L. BYRON). The ocean has his chart, the stars their map, And knowledge spreads

them on her ample lap (ID.). Hope.. Does what she can (LONGFELLOW). Pardon, clad like a mother, gave you her hand to kiss (ID.). Praise.. with her soft plume (YOUNG). Accuse. not thy fate she may redeem thee still (L. BYRON). God hath yoked to guilt Her pale tormentor misery (BRYANT). And Havoc loathes so much the waste of time, She scarce had left an uncommitted crime (L. BYRON).

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The masculine gender appears to be here rare; compare: Life mocks the idle hate Of his arch-enemy Death (BRYANT). Old-English: Hope cam. Ac whan he hadde sighte of that segge (= man) (PIERS PLOUGHм. p. 351.)

2. The Adjective.

The adjective, or word of quality, which expresses the quality inherent in an object, solely in reposing upon a substantives into the notion of which the quality is to be taken up, is for this reason both thought in unity with its substantive as regards sex, and shares its changing relations in the sentence. In the languages phonetically more complete it has therefore terminations of gender, and also marks of case, to express its unity with the substantive. Anglosaxon distinguished more or less distinctly three genders of the adjective, with which the participle, as a verbal adjective, is also to be reckoned. Old-French distinguished, at least partly, two genders by the termination. Anglosaxon distinguished a strong and a weak declension of adjectives, whose cases certainly often coincided in point of form, the comparative following however the weak declension only. OldFrench still distinguished in part the nominative of the singular and of the plural from the oblique cases of the adjective. Modern-English has completely abandoned the distinction of gender, number and case by terminations, with adjectives not used substantively.

If the nature or quality which the adjective expresses is attributed absolutely to an object, the word of quality, as positive, stands in its fundamental form. If, however, that quality is attributed to one or several objects, by way of comparison, in a greater measure than to one or several objects placed over against them, this greater measure is expressed by the comparative of the word of quality, in which case two spheres only of comparison are proposed, whether the objects compared in quality belong to the same or to different classes of things. If, finally, a quality common to all objects coming under review is ascribed to one or to several of them in the greatest measure, the adjective expresses this highest measure by the superlative. The comparative and the superlative need therefore a different form from the positive. The Anglosaxon distinguished them by Suffixes, like the Latin; French, which lost the Latin suffixes down to a few traces, distinguished them by the prefixed adverbs plus, le plus. English combined both modes.

Tho Declension of Adjectives

In Modern-Englisch the adjective, as such, appears always in the same form: a virtuous man; a virtuous woman; virtuous men &c. They rather look like vagabond gipsies, or stout beggars, than regular troops (LADY MONTAGUE). Thus the adjective has become unknowable by its form. To this is to be ascribed the misunderstanding, by which substantives, which often appear in a loose connection before others as words of determination, are frequently cited at the same time as adjectives in dictionaries, as, gold, silver, stone &c., although it is a matter of course that substantives, in their effect as words of determination, may express the same import as the adjective combined with the substantive. In iron (Anglosaxon subst. and adject. îsern, îren) the substantive certainly coincides in form with the adjective.

Anglosaxon has bequeathed hardly a trace of its case terminations even to Old-English. Here belongs, for instance: Dame, have you godne dai! (DAME SIRIZ p. 7.). The Anglosaxon strong form m. gôd, f. god (u), n. gòd has in the accus. sing. masc. godne. To the weak form m. -a, f. -e, n. -e, gen &c. -an might i'th' olden time (SHAKSPEARE Macb. 3, 4.) be referred, since there is no Anglosaxon alden, but only ald, so that olden had developed itself out of the cases. On the contrary an e, which seems to occur more frequently with the feminine than with the masculine, has been preserved more obstinately in the adjective used in the plural, so that we can see therein a mark of distinction of the two numbers. Compare: God corn. . wateres he hap eke gode (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER I. 1.); pe strengeste me (= men) (I. 111.); lawes he made ryztuollere and strongore pan er were (I. 266.). A sotil thing the sotile craftes (PIERS PLOUGHM. p. 294. 297.). In raggede clothes (p. 204.). Povere men to fede (p. 273.). Of avarouse chapmen (p. 300.). 4 principalle cytees (MAUNDEV. p. 27.). Many perilouse passages (IB.). Many goude hylles and fayre (p. 127.). Into Cristene mennes handes (p. 104.). This comes out especially, when adjectives are used as substantives: Of alle manere of men, The meene and the riche (PIERS PLOUGHM. p. 2.). Amonges povere and riche (p. 274. 278.). Whan thise wikkede wenten out (p. 22.). Oon of Godes chosene (p. 209.). We may certainly consider this e as a remnant of the inflective termination, which in the plural of the weak declension was -an, in the strong

-e, -e, -u.

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Adjectives are in English, as in other tongues, also used as substantives. It is indebted for many adjectives used as substantives even to the Anglosaxon, still more to the French. Yet on the whole, among adjectives used as substantives only a small number assumes also the form of inflection of the substantive.

a) To the adjectives used as substantives which adopt these inflective forms belong mostly Romance, fewer Germanic words. Here belong:

a) those, which become personal names for a people, as Ionian, Italian, Dorian, Spartan, German, Roman, Euro

pean &c. They are commonly already Romance or Latin substantives. Words like Scot, Greek &c., although partly occurring as adjectives, do not belong here as Anglosaxon substantives: Scottas (plur. tantum), Grêc. Even Swiss is a substantive.

Such as end in a sibilant or a hissing letter (also ese) do not assume the plural s: the Irish, the English, the French, the Dutch, the Portuguese, the Chinese, the Bengalese; on the other hand Tunguses.

Words ending in sh and ch do not occur otherwise than generalized with the article the, or universally negatived by no (the Dutch; no Dutch).

Otherwise determined, or used predicatively, man in the singular, men in the plural is annexed to them: an Irishman, these Englishmen, two Frenchmen; they are Enlishmen.

8) Names of persons, denoting the members of a sect or party: Christian, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Stoic, Cynic, Jacobin &c. They have also mostly been taken from the Romance or Latin, as forms already used as substantives. 7) Names of persons of another sort are: impertinent, incurable, ignorant, ancient, modern, mortal, immortal, native, noble, saint, sage, criminal &c.; which are joined by a few Germanic ones, as, heathen, (Anglosaxon hæden, adj.), black, white. Latin comparatives also, as inferior, superior, senior, junior, to which the Anglosaxon elder, better are added, and which we often meet with in combination with my: my inferiors, my betters &c.; but also otherwise: The juniors of their number (L. BYron). The elders of his own tribe (W. SCOTT). If many of these words are found chiefly in the plural, the use of the singular is not thereby excluded, which dictionaries therefore do not hesitate to cite also as a substantive. But some are of course limited to the plural, as commons, infernals and others.

d) Concrete and abstract names of things likewise occur in the form of adjectives used as substantives, the latter indeed very commonly in the plural, like the Latin neuters of adjectives: eatables, drinkables, combustibles, materials, mercurials, pentecostals, vitals, substantials, valuables, movables, woolens, as the plural often stands with a particular meaning alongside of the singular: green, greens; white, whites; sweet, sweets home-made wines, molasses &c. Of abstract nouns belong here the names of sciences, as mathematics &c. (see p. 230.); universals: Universals have no real substance (LONGFELLOW); dialectically dismals melancholy feelings and others. Lexicography has to bestow a particular notice upon words belonging here, which withdraws them from grammatical rules.

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b) The great number of adjectives, especially of the Anglosaxon origin, as well as the participial forms, does not share the in

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