and to have been partly equivalent to the Highdutch ch, precisely where in English it has completely disappeared. The Old-English often employed for g and y the Anglosaxon 3, which, strange to say, is often rendered in modern copies by z. Among the English consonants j can never end a syllable; v, as well as the dental c and g appear only with a following mute e, g with ue at the end of a syllable. The pronunciation of consonants in detail. 1) The nasal and the liquid sounds m, n, 1, r. m at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of a syllable, sounds like the Highdutch m: man, márry, complaint, ambition, immórtal, imitate, claim, form. The words formerly spelt compt, accómpt, comptrol, comptroller are at present spelt count, account, contróll, contróller, and the former, when they occur, pronounced like the latter. The first two answer to the Latin: computare, Old-French conter, cunter, in modern French dissimilated into compter and conter (m becomes n before the dental). The latter come from the French contrôle (= contre-rôle Lat. rotulus). The final m appears doubled in mumm, wherein only one m sounds. n has in general the sound of the Highdutch n: nail, enforce, enjoy, éngine, énmity, hen, hand, finch, discérn. In Banf and Pontefract n is pronounced like m (= bamf, pomfret) as the latter is also sometimes written. γ Before gutturals n assumes in general the sound of the Greek 7 or the Gothic g before a guttural (compare Gothic briggan, paghjan), which we are wont to represent by ng and which we denote by n*): uncle, ink, mónkey, banquet, ánguish, cónger. In these cases n is on the one hand tinged with a guttural, but on the other hand also the guttural becomes audible at the end or the beginning of a subsequent syllable; compare: in-k, con-ger, En-gland. To this, however, exceptions are found. In syllables ending in ng the guttural n is alone heard, without the aftersound g: sin(g), lon(g), bóilin(g), although dialectically, for example, in the NorthEast of England g is sounded after it (kin-g, lon-g). In derivatives from such stems also ʼn alone continues audible: sin(g)in(g), sin(g)er, win(g)y, youn(g)ster. Yet here again the comparatives and superlatives from long, strong, young (lón-ger, youn-gest) form an exception, an anomaly blamed by some orthoepists. In words whose stem syllable ends in ing, the convenience of pronunciation often completely extirpates the guttural tinge of the derivative syllable, so that we hear singin, bringin spoken, a *) in comparative Grammar this sound is usually denoted by n with a point over it; for want of this character we have been forced to select n natural bias to dissimilation of syllables, which is nevertheless justly blamed. In composition a syllable ending in n undergoes before a guttural no guttural tinge (compare vánguard; otherwise, where the composition no longer comes into consciousness: Lincoln Lindum colonia, pronounced Lin-kun). Yet in prefixes ending in n the exception takes place that they assume the sound ʼn under the principal accent: conquer, conquest, cóngress, cóngruent, inchoate, inquinate; con even under the subordinate accent: cóncoagulate; but in regard to the prefix in there is no consistency or agreement income, increase, increate, inclavated, inquest being denoted as the usual pronunciation. In the unaccented syllable every guttural tinge is removed: congrúity, inclément, unquiet. This happens even in other unaccented syllables, as in augúst. Final n is seldom doubled. (Compare inn) where it sounds like a single n. 1 has the sound of the Highdutch 1: lamb, plúral, blue, slang, climb, soil, fault, bulk. It sounds after a consonant before a mute e, as in people, table, trîfle; shuttle; see above. A final double 1, which is usual at the end of monosyllablic words, is not to be distinguished from a simple l: kill, full, all; therefore in compound words the of the stem becomes a final single l without any sacrifice of sound: fulfil, wilful, withál, hándful. I also, in immediate contact with a subsequent consonant, (also with a mute e between) sounds as a single l: kill'd; as ll only sounds as a single I before a clear vowel hardened into y: búllion (boolyon). Even a strongly aspirated initial double l is like the single 7: Llandaff, Llanelly. (The Celtic sound is represented in English by ll or Ulh). Moreover in the middle of words, before vowels sounds at once as the final sound of the prior and as the initial sound of the subsequent syllable: allý, billow, follow. 7 is exceptionally pronounced like r, this often arises out of an 7: in cólonel (pronounced curnel) in Spencer also coronel (comp. Span. coronel, French colonel), and in Cashalton (pronounced cāshor❜tn). r is either dental or guttural (see above): a) dental at the commencement: run, rose; also in combination with other consonants: pride, bride, fresh, try, draw, spread, stride, crown, grow. When in the middle of a word begins a syllable after a short vowel. it becomes by attraction at the same time the final sound of the previous syllable, and therefore apparently doubles itself, so that e commences with a guttural sound and sounds on with the succeeding syllable as a dental: pěril (like per-ril), förest, baron. Even after long vowels, when it begins the following syllable, it has a guttural influence on that vowel: várious, serious, fúry. b) guttural at the end of a syllable even with subsequent consonants: fir, her, star, cur, múrmur; hear, air, door; cóbler, cóllar, árbor; herb, earth, pearl, lord, hurt, worm, work, turf. This is also naturally the case where r is followed by a mute e fire, here, ware, shore, pure; jointure. At the end, with another preceding consonant, it produces, as it were, a metathesis of the re and has the guttural sound: théatre, mássacre, sépulchre, theater, or -tur &c. The same metathesis appears in îren = îurn, apron apurn, in common life = also in children, húndred and the like. Uneducated persons let the r entirely disappear in words like hard, lord. The broad guttural pronunciation of the r, called burr in the throat, is peculiar to the northern dialects. Doubler in the middle of a word places the guttural and the dental beside each other, the former, however, essentially softened, unless it comes from a stem ending in r, as in stárry of star, on which account the former does not essentially affect the vowel; at the end, where it is equivalent to a single guttural r, it is only used exceptionally: err, serr (= serry), purr. 2) The Lipsounds p, b, f, (ph, gh), v, w, (wh). p sounds in general like the Highdutch p: pity, pebble, págan, pound, pure, play, prince, up, damp, slept. In common life p is assimilated to a subsequent b, in cúpboard; in raspberry (pronounced rasberry) we may regard p as completely rejected on account of the collision of three consonants. Thus too it is assimilated to the succeeding ph in: Sáppho, sápphic, sápphire, pronounced Saffo. The softening of the p into b occurs in póther, which, according to this corrupted pronunciation is also spelt bother. b has the sound common to the Germanic tongues at all parts of the word: baby, blow, broad, bob, gobble, barb. Double b at the end is only exceptional: in ebb. f has the sound of the Highdutch f: fáncy, fly, friend, múffin, chiefly, after, thief, wife, calf, craft. Doublef at the end of polysyllabic words after a short vowel is usual with some trifling exceptions, even polysyllables have : off, cliff, staff, plaintiff, caítiff, wherein sounds like a single ƒ. In the unique particle of, f sounds like e, but not in composition, as thereof, whereof &c. The sound of ƒ is also represented by ph, corresponding to the Greek, which has passed through the Latin and the Romance. The Anglosaxon seldom has ph (philosoph, pharisee with farisee). In Old-English ƒ and ph alliterate: Fare wel Phippe and Faunteltee (PIERS PLOUGHM.p. 205). In Modern-English they are likewise interchanged; gulph and gulf, Guelphs and Guelfs: philosopher, phosphor, phrase, phlegm. v appears softened into in Stephen, Old-French Estevenes, Hollandish Steven, Old-English Steuene (ROB. OF GLOUCESTER), also sec. XVI Steuen (JACK JUGLER c. 1562.) and in nephew, OldEnglish neuew, the French neveu alongside of the Anglosax, nëfa; some orthoepists demand here the pronunciation of ƒ as f. Thus in writing also náphew and návew (Lat. napus, French navet) stand alongside of each other. Before th ph transform itself into the sound p (unless it is altogether silent, see below): naphtha, diphthong, ophthalmic. Moderns demand here in diphthong and others the pronunciation dif, so inconvenient before the lisping sound th. gh also sometimes represents the f-sound, yet only after au and ou and in a short syllable in the words draugh (also spelt draff) draught (also draft) laugh, laughter; chough (pronounced chuf) clough (pronounced cluf), Brough (pronounced bruf), cough (pronounced cof), enough (enuf), rough (pronounced ruf), slough (pronounced sluf in the substantive "shakesskin"), tough (pronounced tuf), trough (pronounced trof), chín cough (pronounced chíncof), Loughborough (pronounced luf-bur-ö). Usually thus even in the seventeenth century. Instead of hiccough (= hiccof) hiccup is also written. v always has the sound of the Highdutch w or the French v: vain, válley, vélvet, love. w as a consonant commences (as distinguished from the Highdutch w) almost like a vowel, and at the same time leans like a consonant, on the subsequent vowel, so that it may be compared in some measure with the combination uw. It is never a final consonant sound, and only tolerates dentals (t, d, s) as audible consonants before it wait, wayward, twice, dwell, swallow (compare qu cw). = In combination with h as wh, the h before it sounds (unless it is wholly silent) = hw Anglosaxon he: which, whet, why, 3. The toothsounds t, d, th, s, c, z, ch, sh, j, g. t has primarily and in general a) the sound of the Highdutch t, when at the beginning of a word it toterates only r and w after it, m only in Greek words: tmésis; term, take, tráitress, twist, tempt, tent, hilt, art, rapt, drift, mast, text, act, settle; with silent letters before it: debt, fraught. Its reduplication at the end is rare: butt, smitt. b) but it often experiences, like other dentals, an influence through an unaccented vowel following it, i, e (and the i preceding in ú) when this is followed by another vowel: ie, ia, io and u iu), ea, eo. As in such combinations the i-sound has a decided bias to harden into a semivowel, so the dental has the tendency to combine with it, by which a hissing sound, either hard or soft, may arise. To retain the i in such cases as a y consonant, as is prescribed by many orthoepists of the more solemn style, offends, in many cases at least, against an universal usage. It is moreover to be remarked that, before Germanic terminations, such as the comparative i-er, t is maintained pure: mightier, pítiest, and only Romance terminations are considered. a) t-i appears as a hard sibilant tsch: «) in conversational language when s or r precedes the t: chrístian, fústian, celéstial, question, mixtion; when, t however, the t is wont to be attracted by the last syllable: pronounced christ-sh'an, celést-sh'al, kwest-shun, míxt-shun. The more solemn pronunciation is declared to be celést-yal and so forth, particularly with the termination ian. ) further, where t-i arises from the combination of t with the terminations eous, une, ure, ual: righteous, fortune, créature, spiritual, pronounced rî-ch'us, fort-shoon, creetsh'oor, spirit-sh'ooal; in the termination uous this is rare. The t is moreover here, as above, attracted after a short vowel or a close syllable. Here, too, the maintenance of iù or yu passes for the more solemn pronunciation. b) as a soft sibilant, and thus usually in the Romance derivative terminations, ient, ia, ial, iate, ion, ious by universal agreement: pátient, militia, pártial, sátiate, méntion, cautious, pronounced pash'ent, mēlish'ă, pársh'al &c. In the pronunciation of Latin words like ratio, the i is still suffered to sound separately: rã-shēō, as well as in words in iate after a long syllable; sátiate pronounced sasheāte. In the cases cited the sibilant of course remains even after the amplification of the words by other derivative terminations, as in partiality, rátional &c. If, however, the i is accented, the fusion ceases: satiety, and t sounds like t. In words in -ier the more solemn style does not permit the transformation of ti into sh: cóurtier (court-yer). d corresponds a) with its soft sound, in general to the Highdutch initial d, and, like t, only tolerates r and w after it at the beginning of a word: din, do, draw, dwell, bándage, kindred, kind, bold, drúnkard, learned, drudge. b) it hardens into in the verbal inflection ed, when e is silent, and it is preceded by the hard consonants p, k, f, gh (=ƒ), the sharp hissing sounds 8, c and r (es) or the sibilants ch, sh: dripped, raked, rácked, stúffed, coughed, chased, pássed, placed, perplexed, snátched, lashed. The physiological reason of this pronunciation has produced the phonetic style of spelling, frequent in Old-English, common in modern English, yet in modern times of very confined use, such as whipt, heapt, askt, crost, fixt, punisht, watcht. c) In the pronunciation of common life d, like t, with a subsequent unaccented i, e (also in u as iú) hardened into a semivowel, enters into a combination before a second vowel, which as a soft sibilant, is denoted by j (= dg). Walker prescribes this usage as the rule; others admit it only in the most frequent words, whereas they pretend to preserve to others the semiconsonant y: sóldier (sōl-jer), insídious, hídeous (hid'-zh'us), grándeur, árduous, vérdure &c.; even in éducate we hear du sometimes as dzh. A pure d with a subsequent feebly hardened i (y) seems almost always to pass for the more correct pronunciation. The transformation of an initial d, before accented vowel |