English stem; as héritage, hóral &c. Many also add herb and hospital to the above list. The inclination is, however, universal to regard has mute in the unaccented syllable, beginning with h at the commencement of a word, on which account the article an instead of a is wont to be put before adjectives of that sort; for instance héro and an heróical &c.

About h before see above.

In Greek words beginning with rh, h is mute: rhétoric, rhúbarb, rheum, also in rhyme; so too in the combination dh in Búddha.

Even where h begins an unaccented syllable after one closed with a consonant, a proneness exists to drop the aspiration, as in ípecácuanha, in shepherd, dúnghill and others, for which reason also in names of place, as Amherst, Dúrham, Haverhill (pronounced haveril), the remains disregarded in the mouth of the people. Otherwise in an accented syllable, as abhór.

Before another final consonant it has likewise no phonetic value: John, Johnson, compare Old-Engl. Jon; buhl, búllwork.

At the end it is mute after vowels and consonants: eh! ah! hah! buh! oh! foh! sírrah! Messíah, Sárah, hallelujah; brámah, dáhlia; catárrh.

Silence of vowels with consonants.

The rejection of consonants with a previous or a subsequent vowel is ordinarily speedily exhibited also in writing; yet the speech of the people has sanctioned abbreviations of this sort, not acknowledged by the written language, particularly in proper names.

Thus in the unaccented syllable a consonant with a mute e at the end is cast out as be in Buncombe (pronounced bunkům) and Edgecombe (pronounced éj❜kům). In the middle of words ve in the common pronunciation of twelve month, Haverford also Havreford; te in lútestring (also spelt lustring); de in the vulgar pronunciation of Hydepark; ce in names compounded with cester: Léicester, Gloucester, Worcester (commonly also pronounced with an elided r) and others.

Conversely both vowel and consonant are lost in: Léominster (pronounced lemster); av; Abergavenny (pronounced åberghénny).

Two consonants with the included vowel in an unaccented syllable are cast out, like ven in sévennight (pronounced sénnit) cf. sennet (SKELTON I. 107), Sévenoaks is pronounced in Kent: Súnnuck; cf. fortnight fourteen night; ver in Wavertree (pronounced wâtry); ren in Cirencester (pronounced cis-e-ter), wherein at the same time s falls out before t. Compare Exeter in ROB, OF GLOUCESTFR Exetre and Excestre I, 5 and 4.

Upon a similar glibness of the speech of common life rest rejections indicated by a mark of elision, like gi'me (give), I'll (will, shall), I'd (would), thou'dst (hadst, wouldst), he'd (had, would) and many more, which remain foreign to the more solemn language.

The syllable and the division of syllables.

The syllable consists either of a single vowel or diphthong, or of a combination of a consonant with a vowel, or conversely; or of a vowel surrounded by consonants. We recognize them as such by that all sounds constituting them are produced with an impulse.

A word, the sensuous expression of an image, may consist of one or of several syllables. The number of its syllables is articulated for the ear according to the number of sounds produced at one impulse. The division of syllables in writing is especially evident by the interruption of the word at the end of the line, and has, besides, a theoretical interest.

But by the peculiar influence of the accent in English upon the totality of the syllables of a polysyllabic word, and the proneness towards the attraction (see above) of the initial consonant of a subsequent syllable, as well as by the glibness of many final syllables, the division of syllables is hardened for apprehension by the ear, and often rendered still more difficult for the written language. The parting of syllables is most obvious where several consonants between Vowels encounter each other which are separated by physiological conditions of the organs of speech, as in ac-com-plish; less decided, where a simple consonant appears between vowels, so that after a long vowel, as in apparent, with the glibness of the final syllable the division appar-ent or appa-rent may more readily catch the ear, and, after a short, attracted consonant, as in epic, the divisions ĕp-ic and ě-pic seem to correspond alike ill to the phonetic relations.

With respect therefore to the division of syllables in writing, there is no complete agreement either among grammarians or in its employment in common life and in typography.

But with the principle which appears so natural, to consider in the division of syllables the sensuous articulation of the word as the standard, is associated the theoretical interest to render evident the stem and the termination, and, in the compounding of words, to render the separate stems manifest. But in this is also to be considered, that in English many derived and even compound words are no more present, as such, to the linguistic consciousness.

In the exposition of the principles for the division of syllables upon which authority is pretty well agreed must therefore be stated a) the general and leading points of view and b) their limitations conditioned by etymological considerations.

a) General Rules.

1) Two vowels; not serving to represent one simple sound or diphthong, are separable: dí-al, deni-able, soci-ety, préviously, perspicu-ous, destróy-ing, knów-ing, apprópriate, superi-órity.

2) If a consonant (with which, of course, must be reckoned the signs of simple sounds ph, th,, sh, ch) stands between two vowels or diphthongs, then, apart from the inflectional and derivational

syllables beginning with a consonant, and cited below, the consonant is drawn to the following vowel: fea-sible, pa-per, fä-ther, no-tice, hu-mour, bi-shop, spi-rit, bá-che-lor, ori-gi-nal, gé-ne-ral, áu-tumn, acknów-ledgement, compá-nion.

This principle is often not observed with a short accented vowel, so that we frequently meet the division: près-ent, canopy, philos-opher, abóm-inate &c., consistency with which is, however, not found throughout even in good lexicographers. A mute e alone is never broken off from its preceding consonant: mouse, house, hinge. 3) Two consonants, standing between two vowels or diphthongs, are divided as the final and the initial sound, unless a mute stands along with a liquid consonant and can form the initial sound of the last vowel, which is not the case, if the liquid commences a derivative syllable: mán-ner, púl-ley, beg-gar, múr-der, ség-ment, prin-ciple, dig-nity, bap-tize, apárt-ment, fús-tian. progrés-sion, obstrúc-tion, Egyptian.

The combination of a mute and a liquid consonant at the beginning of a syllable is mostly confined to r: á-pron, propriety, péne-trate, álge-bra, sé-cret, sá-cred, orthography; on the other hand does not combine readily: públic, púb-lish, estáb-lish, neg-lécting, even dec-lamátion; although péo-ple, scrú-ple, sýlla-ble, tri-fle and the like are written.

ck is always drawn to the last syllable: póck-et, chick-ens, Cóck-eram; likewise r, even when it occurs in words not compounded: vex-átion, véx-il, proximity.

4) If three consonants separate the vocalization, the last two, if consisting of a mute and a liquid or of two consonants combined at the beginning of stems, are drawn to the following syllable: mém-brane, cúm-brous, dóc-trine, mágis-trate, sceptre, hún-dred; búb-bling, cát-tle. mid-dle, swin-dler, sprin-kle, strúg-gle.

Yet we usually find, after a nasal n, the consonants kl, gl separated, (except before a single mute e): twink-ling, mingling, eng-lish.

But if the two latter consonants are not of the kind above indicated, the former two are drawn to the former syllable: distinc-tion, émp-ty, absórp-tion, presúmp-tive.

b) Limitations through etymological considerations.

1) The inflectional and derivational terminations condition divisions of syllables not according with the rules generally valid, especially for stems.

«) derivational terminations commencing with a consonant (resting partly upon composition) are always separated, even from prior consonants, as ness, ment, ly &c.

3) on inflectional and derivational terminations beginning with a vowel no perfect agreement prevails; but their separation

from the stem ending with a consonant only takes place with terminations felt decidedly as derivational forms. The separation is readily avoided in many cases.

The termination ing is unanimously separated from the stem: lead-ing, despóil-ing, búild-ing, learn-ing, ádd-ing, fáll-ing, spell-ing. Double consonants are given to the syllable of the stem, unless they first appear with the termination, else they are usually separated; hence rún-ning, fit-ting, blót-ting &c. Even if the stem ends with a consonant and a mute e, with the rejection of the e, the consonant usually remains to the stem: giv-ing, uniting, háv-ing, móv-ing, appróv-ing, deterg-ing; although many then draw the consonant to the termination: detér-ging, wri-ting; and thus also before other terminations. On twink-ling &c. see above.

In substantives in er derived from verbal stems the same thing happens: téach-er, réad-er, hélp-er (yet not with reduplicated consonants: skim- mer; likewise when the stem ends in e wri-ter) and in words in ard: drunk-ard. In the comparative and superlative the er and est are also separated from the stem: great-er, bróad-est, néar-est.

The terminations ence and ance are likewise usually separated: réfer-ence, differ-ence, exist-ence, appearance, acquáint-ance, perfórm-ance; on the other hand excrés-cence and, according to the correct feeling, violence; also age: bánd-age; ary: diction-ary; ure: depárture even displéas-ure. Thus also ity is separated: quálity, chár-ity, regulár-ity. Of verbal terminations en and on: belong here: dárk-en, shórt-en, réck-on; ish and ize are also found separated: pún-ish, aból-ish; cáracterize, géneral-ize; as well as ate: adúlter-ate.

The verbal inflection ed is regularly separated: fábricated, demand-ed, demént-ed.

Among the adjective terminations we find ish, ical, istic, ian, ent, able, ous and others separated: fóol-ish, crit-ical, character-istic, differ-ent, réason-able, remárkable, resólv-able (even move-able), póison-ous, dánger-ous &c. It often depends upon that the syllable of formation is added to a stem universally known (which itself may contain a derivation) which one thinks it is not permitted to deprive of its final consonant. Strict consistency is not observed even by the correctest writers.

The separation of the unaccented vowels ia, ie, eo, io and the like, particularly in derivational terminations beginning with s, c, t, as argiláce-ous, sagáci-ous, possessi-on, conditi-on, is decidedly disapproved. We divide: spécial, intervé-nient, argillaceous, relá-tion &c., although also sometimes: provis-ion.

2) Where the composition is present to the linguistic consciousness, the constituents are separated in the division of the syllables, without regard to the above general rules; wherein the nature

of the constituents is indifferent: in-active, Eng-land, a-stray, an-other, up-ón, re-stráin, re-spéct, be-tween, dis-ease, as-certáin, de-stróy, when-éver, shép-herd, béef-eater &c.

Yet we find divisions such as ab-stáin, ab-scónded, distilled and the like, through mistaking the constituents, or from the greater case of pronunciation, as divisions in words like penúltimate and others no longer allow the consideration of composition to appear.

The word and its accent.

The word, as expression of an image, consists, in its simplest form, of one syllable. Polysyllables arise through the junction of syllables of formation to the syllable of the stem (Suffixes), as well as by the conjunction of still recognizable stems, either with or without further syllables of formation. Syllables constituting the simple or compound word, are recognized as the expression of one total image by being comprehended under a principal accent. This is received by one syllable, which is therefore called the accented syllable, the others having a subordinate accent.

The monosyllable can, in regard to its accent, be measured only within the sentence; many monosyllables (as the article, pronoun, preposition and auxiliary word) may attach themselves proclitically to the accent of the following word, or enclitically to that of the previous word and are prejudiced not only quantitatively and qualitatively in regard to their vocalization, but also in strength of sound.

Words of more than one syllable, and especially polysyllables have a gradation of accent within themselves, and, besides the principal accent, a second, (rarely a third), called the subordinate accent, may come forth.

The English tongue, in the accenting of its words, has had various principles to adjust among each other. The principle of accenting the syllable of the stem of the simple word proceeded from the Anglosaxon elements of the language; the Norman-French stock of words established the accenting of the full final syllable; the Latin and Latin-Greek elements, coming in along with the study of the classics, procured admission for the Latin principle; according to which in disyllables the first, in polysyllables, the penultimate or the antepenultimate necessarily has the accent.

In general the principle of accenting the syllable of the stem in words of more than one syllable has carried off the victory; the French principle of accenting the final syllable has maintained itself in many cases, as it were, exceptionally; yet the Latin accenting, particularly in the Latin-French forms of words in the modern English has obtained intensively, through the cooperation of philologists.

A distinction takes place, however, in certain cases, in the accenting of simple and of compound words, with the Germanic and other constituents of the compound, although many words originally compounds are no longer felt as such.