altered from a republic to a kind of limited monarchy; if, on the contrary, the opposite party prevailed, the people must submit to the weight of a confirmed aristocracy, supported by French power, and liable to its control. Of the two evils they A. D. chose the former: the people in several towns, inflamed 1747. almost to sedition, compelled their magistrates to declare the prince of Orange stadtholder, captain-general, and admiral, of the United Provinces. The vigorous consequences of this resolution immediately appeared. All commerce with the French was prohibited; the Dutch army was augmented, and orders were issued to commence hostilities against the French by sea and land. Thus the war which had begun but in a single country, was now diffused over all Europe, and, like a disorder, prevailed in different parts of this great political constitution, remitting and raging by turns.

The king of Sardinia, who had some years before joined France against England, now changed sides, and declared against the ambitious power of France. Italy felt all the terrors of intestine war, or, more properly, looked on, while foreigners were contending with each other for her usurped dominions. The French and Spaniards on one side, and the imperialists and the king of Sardinia on the other, ravaged those beautiful territories by turns, and gave laws to a country that had once spread her dominion over the world.

About this time the English made an unsuccessful attack upon Port l'Orient, a sea-port in France, but weakly defended, and drew off their forces in a panic. The French gained a considerable victory at Roucoux, near Liege, although it procured them no real advantage, and cost them as many lives as they destroyed of the enemy. Another victory, which they obtained at La-Feldt, served to depress the allied army still lower. But the taking of Bergen-op-zoom, the strongest fortification of Dutch Brabant, reduced the Dutch to a state of desperation.

However, these victories gained by the French were counterbalanced by almost equal disappointments. In Italy, the marshal Belleisle's brother, attempting to penetrate, at the head of thirty-four thousand men, into Piedmont, was routed, and himself slain. An unsuccessful fleet was sent out for the recovery of Cape Breton. Two more were fitted out, the one to make a descent upon the British colonies in America, and

the other to carry on the operations in the East Indies; but these were attacked by Anson and Warren, and nine ships taken. Soon after this, commodore Fox, with six ships of war, took above forty French ships richly laden from St. Domingo; and this loss was soon after followed by another defeat which the French fleet sustained from admiral Hawke, in which seven ships of the line and several frigates were taken In this manner, victory, defeat, negotiation, treachery, and rebellion succeeded each other rapidly for some years, till all sides began to think themselves growing more feeble, and gaining no solid advantage.

The Dutch had for some time endeavoured to stop the progress of a war in which they had all to lose and nothing to gain. The king of France was sensible that after a victory was the most advantageous time to offer terms of peace. He even expressed his desire of general tranquillity to sir John Ligonier, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of LaFeldt. But now the bad success of his admirals at sea, his armies in Italy, the frequent bankruptcies of the merchants at home, and the election of a stadtholder in Holland, who gave spirit to the opposition, more effectually contributed to make him weary of the war, and prompted him to propose an accommodation. This was what the allies had long wished for; and which, notwithstanding, they were ashamed to demand. The English ministry, in particular, finding themselves unable to manage a parliament soured by frequent defeats, and now beginning to be disgusted with continental connections, were very ready to accede. A negotiation was therefore resolved upon; and the contending powers agreed to come to a congress at Aix-la-Chapelle, where the earl of Sandwich and sir Thomas Robinson assisted as plenipotentiaries from the king of Great Britain.

This treaty, which takes its name from the city at which it was made, was begun upon the preliminary conditions of restoring all conquests made during the war. Hence A. D. great hopes were expected of conditions both favourable 1748. and honourable to the English; but the treaty still remains a lasting mark of precipitate counsels, and English disgrace. By this it was agreed that all prisoners on each side should be mutually restored, and all conquests given up; that the duchies

of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, should be ceded to Don Philip, heir apparent to the Spanish throne, and to his heirs ; but that, in case of his succeeding to the crown of Spain, these dominions should revert to the house of Austria. It was confirmed that the fortifications of Dunkirk toward the sea should be demolished; that the English ships, annually sent with slaves to the coast of New Spain, should have this privilege continued for four years; that the king of Prussia should be confirmed in the possession of Silesia, which he had lately conquered; and that the queen of Hungary should be secured in her patrimonial dominions. But one article of the peace was more displeasing and afflictive to the English than all the rest. It was stipulated that the king of Great Britain should, immediately after the ratification of this treaty, send two persons of rank and distinction to France as hostages, until restitution should be made of Cape Breton, and all other conquests which England had made during the war. This was a mortifying clause, but to add to the general error of the negotiation, no mention was made of searching the vessels of England in the American seas, upon which the war was originally begun. The limits of their respective possessions in North America were not ascertained; nor did they receive any equivalent for those forts which they restored to the enemy. The treaty of Utrecht had long been the object of reproach to those by whom it was made; but, with all its faults, the treaty now concluded was far more despicable and erroneous. Yet, such was the spirit of the times, that the treaty of Utrecht was branded with universal contempt, and the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was extolled with the highest strains of praise. But the people were wearied with repeated disgrace; and, only expecting an accumulation of misfortunes from continuing the war, they were glad of any peace that promised a pause to their disappointments.

CHAPTER XXV.

GEORGE II. (CONTINUED.)

A. D. 1748-1755.

THIS treaty, which some asserted would serve for a bond of permanent amity, was, properly speaking, but a temporary truce-a cessation from hostilities, which both sides were unable to continue. Though the war between England and France was actually hushed up in Europe, in the East and West Indies it still went forward with undiminished vehemence; both sides still willing to offend, still offending, and yet both complaining of the infraction.

In the mean time, as Europe enjoyed a temporary tranquillity, the people of England expected, and the ministers were liberal in promising them, a return of all the advantages of peace. In order to please the populace (for this ministry had the art always to keep the people in good humour) a magnificent fire-work was played off; and the spectators could never be brought to think that a bad treaty, which was celebrated with such magnificent profusion.

It must be confessed, also, there was some desire shown in the ministry to promote the commerce of the kingdom; and for this purpose a bill was passed for encouraging a British herring-fishery, in the manner of that carried on by the Dutch, under proper regulations. From the carrying such a scheme vigorously into execution, great advantages were expected. The Dutch, who had long enjoyed the sole profits arising from this article, considered the sea as a mine of inexhaustible wealth. But the patience and frugality of that nation seem to fit them more properly for the life of fishermen than the English. Certain it is, that experience has shown this attempt to rival the Dutch to have been ineffectual. Perhaps the company was not established upon the strictest principles of economy; perhaps the Dutch art of curing their fish was not practised or understood perfectly.

In the mean time, Mr Pelham, who now conducted the VOL. II.

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business of the state, and was esteemed a man of candour and A. D. capacity, formed a scheme for lightening the immense 1749. load of debt which the nation sustained, in consequence of the late war. His plan was, to lessen the debt by lowering the interest which had been promised on granting the supplies, or else obliging the lenders to receive the sums originally granted. Those, for instance, who were proprietors of stock, and received for the use of their money four per cent., were, by an act passed for that purpose, compelled to subscribe their names, signifying their consent to accept three pounds ten shillings per cent. the following year, and three per cent. every year ensuing; and, in case of a refusal, assurances were given that the government would pay off the principal. This scheme was attended with the desired effect, though it, in some measure, was a force upon the lender, who had originally granted his money upon different terms, and under a promise of continuing interest. However, the measure was evidently beneficial to the nation; and experience has shown that it no way affected the public credit. Besides this salutary measure, others were pursued for the interest of the nation with equal success. The importation of iron from America was allowed, and the trade to Africa was laid open to the nation, under the superintendence of the board of trade.

But all the advantages the nation reaped from these salutary measures were not sufficient to counterbalance the stroke which liberty received, as some are of opinion, by an unusual stretch of the privileges of the house of commons. The city of Westminster had long been represented by members who were, in some measure, appointed by the ministry. Lord Trentham, member for Westminster, having vacated his seat in the house of commons, by accepting a place under the A. D. crown, again resolved to stand candidate, and met with 1750. a violent opposition. It was objected by some that he had been uncommonly active in introducing some French strollers, who had come over by the invitations of the nobility to open a theatre when our own was shut up. This accusation against him excited a violent combination, who styled themselves the independent electors of Westminster, and who named sir George Vandeput, a private gentleman, as his competitor. These resolved to support their nomination at their