have deduced from them. First as to Zoroaster himself, or Zarathushtra as the Avesta names him, the Gathas seem sometimes his own voice, sometimes the voices of his followers, but always they are very close to him in time and spirit. They show us the man Zarathushtra as he lived, his hopes and fears, his wonderment as ideas came to him, his rage against his foes. As to the date of the great teacher's life, the Gathas remain vague, and there has been much argument among our scholars, but no positive decision. The chief American authority, Professor Jackson, inclines to the view that the sage taught about 600 B.C. The date certainly can not be later, and some scholars would set it earlier by many centuries, perhaps even as early

as 2000 B.C.

Zarathushtra was a member of the aristocracy of his community, in which an invading Aryan folk ruled over a peasantry of Asiatic, perhaps ancient Indian, stock. In this already complex realm, Zarathushtra became the champion of peace as against war. He urged his people to take up the toil of husbandry, the peaceful raising of cattle, instead of seeking the excitement of rapine, the plundering of the herds of others. He taught the nobles that their God, the longestablished Aryan god, Ahura Mazda, or the Lord Mazda, demanded of them that they should thus help and guide their subject-people, instead of destroying them. Indeed, Zarathushtra looked far beyond that immediate item of dispute. He preached that all existence was a mighty struggle against the forces of evil, the enemies of Mazda, chief among whom was the Druj, which seems to mean the Lie, or falsity in general. In this eternal battle of good and evil, all men took part whether they would or no. Whoever was not openly fighting on the side of Mazda was thereby aiding the Druj.

Chiefly, though, the new teacher's religion centered about the cattle. He spoke to herdsmen. The Aryans must cease to be marauders; they must raise cattle instead of capturing them, protect them instead of destroying them. He pictures earth itself under the figure of a cow giving bounteous sup

plies. The force which we call Nature, Zarathushtra names the "Ox-soul." Simple as his teaching is, it is amazingly modern in its clear concepts and high thought. The prophet sees but one god, though speaking often of what he calls the "Amshaspands," or attributes of Mazda. These are six: Vohu Manah," Good Thought or Kindliness; "Asha," Right; "Spenta Armaiti," Piety or Harmony; "Haurvatat," Salvation; "Ameretat," Wisdom, or perhaps Immortality; and "Xsathra," Sovereignty. There is also a spirit or messenger angel, Sraosha or Obedience.

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These spirits will be met with constantly in the Gathas; yet they are scarcely separate beings. The prophet sees them only as abstractions, voices of the Lord Mazda in one attitude or another. Indeed, even as late as the days of the Greeks, the historian Herodotus could still say of the Persians: "It is not customary among them to have idols made, temples built, and altars erected; they even upbraid with folly those who do so. I can account for that, only from their not believing that the gods are like men as the Hellenes do."

One can imagine that this straightforward teaching of kindliness combined with this abstruse and modern conception that even heaven and hell are only of the spirit, intellectual rather than material existences, found little favor among Zarathushtra's wild kinsfolk. They must, however, have felt deeply the appeal of his thrilling picture of existence as an eternal battle against evil; for it was this part of his religion which grew with later ages. The evil principle, the Lie, was given what it hardly receives in the Gathas, a name of its own. It became "Ahriman," or the enemy; and the later Zoroastrian books speak constantly of a dual creation, the war of Ahura Mazda (or Ormazd) against Ahriman.

At first Zarathushtra's teaching encountered serious opposition, but at length a mighty noble, Frashaoshtra, became his champion; and he wedded Frashaoshtra's daughter, Hvovi. Then their king, Vishtaspa, was converted; and we find the closing hymns of the Gathas depicting Zoroaster as in full power over the religion of his race.

THE GATHAS

I

THE GATHA AHUNAVAITI1

8

6

5

1. Unto you wailed the Ox-soul. "For whom did ye fashion me? Who created me? Violence and rapine hath oppressed me, and outrage and might. I have no other herdsmen than you: prepare for me then the blessings of pasture."

2. Then the Ox-Creator" asked of the Right: 8 "Hast thou a judge for the Ox, that ye may be able to appoint him

1 This Gatha is so called because its opening theme is like that of the chief Parsi prayer called the " Ahuna Vairya."

2 Of the seven Yasnas or hymns in this Gatha, number XXIX is by the Parsis placed second, but it fits much more appropriately as the opening. (See introduction.) Its theme is the selection of Zarathushtra for his mission as prophet and teacher. The Ox-soul and the Pregnant Cow, or Nature and Earth, appeal to Mazda for protection against the destruction wrought by ravaging bands, who slay the cattle and (perhaps) destroy the crops. Mazda thereon assigns Zarathushtra to check this disorder. The ox and cow protest; he is too weak and unnoted a man; they want a king. But Zarathushtra at once accepts his mission with such energy that they are content. This Yasna is from the translation by L. H. Mills.

8 Ahura with the Amshaspands around him. See introduction for these

names.

4 The Ox-soul is a being with much the same relation to cattle on earth that the Fravashis have to men. He complains in the heavenly council of violence done to those on earth whom he represents.

"What" seems less likely. The masculine anticipates the answer that the hymn will supply.

• Aesmo, but it is not yet a proper name: it is on the same footing as the synonyms following.

It is suggested that this genius replaces Mithra. He is not Ahura Mazda, for he addresses him in this hymn.

The Right-Asha.

zealous tendance as well as fodder? Whom do ye will to be his lord, who may drive off violence together with the followers of the Lie?" 9

3. To him the Right replied:10 "There is for the Ox no helper that can keep harm away. Those yonder 11 have no knowledge how right-doers act toward the lowly."

(The Ox-Creator) "Strongest of beings is he to whose help I come at call."

4. (Asha) "Mazda knoweth best the purposes that have been wrought already by demons and by mortals, and that shall be wrought hereafter. He, Ahura, is the decider. So shall it be as he shall will."

5. (The Ox-Creator 12) "To Ahura with outspread hands we twain would pray, my soul and that of the pregnant Cow, so that we twain urge Mazda with entreaties: Destruction is not for the right-living nor for the cattle-tender, at hands of the Liars."

6. Then spake Ahura Mazda himself, who knows the laws, with wisdom: "There is found no lord or judge 13 according to the Right Order; for the Creator hath formed thee for the cattle-tender and the farmer.14

7. This ordinance about the fat 15 hath Ahura Mazda, one in will with the Right, created for the cattle, and the milk for them that crave nourishment, by his command, the holy

one.

• Dregvant, one who has the Druj," the standing antithesis to asavant, one who has Asha."

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10 Asha, as guardian of things as they should be. But the passage is significant in that even Asha is not high enough for the purpose presently disclosed. Nothing less than Mazda's own commission will be authority enough for Zarathushtra.

11 I.e., men below.

12 But instead of him we seem to have the Ox-soul again, who speaks for a primeval pair, ox and cow, or Nature and the Earth.

18 Ahu and ratu are correlative terms, in the Gathas, denoting the prince and the judge respectively, the former executing the judge's decisions. At the final judgment Mazda is ahu and Zarathushtra ratu. 14 The cattle are chattels, and can only appear by their patron.

15 Mazda declares that the cattle are divinely appointed to give flesh and milk to men. Cattle were the special province of Vohu Manah, but the Gathas do not emphasize it.

(The Ox and Cow) "Whom hast thou, O Good Thought,16 among men who may care for us twain?"

8. (Vohu Manah) "He is known to me here who alone hath heard our commands, even Zarathushtra Spitama: he willeth to make known our thoughts, O Mazda, and those of the Right. So let us bestow on him charm of speech."

9. Then the Ox-Soul lamented: "That I must be content with the ineffectual word of an impotent man for my protector, when I wish for one that commands mightily! When ever shall there be one who shall give him (the Ox) effectual help?"

10. (Zarathushtra) "Do ye, O Ahura, grant them strength, O Right, and that Dominion, O Good Thought, whereby he (the protector) can produce good dwellings and peace. I also have realized thee, Mazda, as first discoverer of this.

11. "Where are Right and Good Thought and Dominion? So, ye men, acknowledge me, for instruction, Mazda, for the great society." 17

(The Ox and Cow) "O Ahura, now is help ours: we will be ready to serve those that are of you." 18

Having in mind your doctrines (ye Gods),

we speak forth words heard not

by those who through the doctrines of the Druj (Satan or the Lie)

16 Good Thought is but the translation of Vohu Manah. Good Thought is an attribute of Mazda.

17 A rather problematic word, taken by Bartholomae as Zarathushtra's name for his community of followers.

18 Yusmavant, literally, "like you," apparently means "you of the heavenly company," Mazda and the spirits with him.

19 The revision of this noted Yasna has been made by Prof. A. V. W. Jackson specially for this series, to show what was probably the rhythmic spirit of the Gathas.

This Yasna might well be regarded as the first public speech of Zarathushtra. In it he announces his mission and asks Mazda for aid. In the ninth stanza he announces the choice made by the ox and cow in Yasna xxix and then questions what choice of life men should make.