racing was added under the emperors, and exhibitions of combats between wild beasts, and, in numerous instances, between men and beasts.

2. After the establishment of the naval power of Rome, naumachiæ, or naval combats, were frequently exhibited in circi built for the purpose. These were not always sham fights; the contests were, in many instances, real engagements, displaying all the horrors of a sanguinary battle.

3. The custom of exhibiting shows of gladiators originated in the barbarous sacrifices of human beings, which prevailed in remote ages. In the gloomy superstition of the Romans, it was believed that the manes, or shades of the dead, derived pleasure from human blood, and they, therefore, sacrificed, at the tombs of their ancestors, captives taken in war, or wretched slaves. It was soon found, that sport to the living might be combined with this horrible offering to the dead, and instead of giving up the miserable victim to the executioner, they were compelled to fight with each other, until the greater part were exterminated.

4. The pleasure that the people derived from this execrable amusement, induced the candidates for office to gratify them frequently with this spectacle. The exhibitions were no longer confined to funerals, they formed an integrant part of every election, and were found more powerful than merit in opening a way to office. The utter demoralization of the Roman people, and the facility with which the tyranny of the emperors was established, unquestionably were owing, in a great degree, to the pernicious prevalence of these scandalous exhibitions.

5. To supply the people with gladiators, schools were established in various parts of Italy, each under the control of a lanis'ta, or fencing-master, who instructed them in martial exercises. The victims were either prisoners of war, or refractory slaves, sold by their masters; but in the degenerate ages of the empire, freemen, and even senators, ventured their lives on the stage along with the regular gladiators. Under the mild and merciful influence of Christianity, these combats were abolished, and human blood was no longer shed to gratify a cruel and sanguinary populace.

6. So numerous were the gladiators, that Spartacus, one of their number, having escaped from a school, raised an army of his fellow-sufferers, amounting to seventy thousand men; he was finally subdued by Cras'sus, the colleague of Pompey. Julius Cæsar during his ædileship, exhibited at one time, three hundred and twenty pairs of gladiators; but even this was surpassed by the emperor Trajan, who displayed no less than one thousand.

7. The gladiators were named from their peculiar arms; the most common were the retiarius, who endeavoured to hamper his antagonist with a net; and his opponent the

secutor.

8. When a gladiator was wounded, or in any way disabled, he fled to the extremity of the stage, and implored the pity of the spectators; if he had shown good sport, they

took him under their protection by pressing down their thumbs; but if he had been found deficient in courage or activity, they held the thumb back, and he was instantly murdered by his adversary.

9. The Roman theatre was formed after the model of the Greeks, but never attained equal eminence. The populace always paid more regard to the dresses of the actors and the richness of the decoration, than to ingenious structure of plot, or elegance of language. Scenic representations do not appear to have been very popular at Rome, certainly, never so much as the sports of the circus. Besides comedies and tragedies, the Romans had a species of drama peculiar to their country, called the Atellane farces, which were in general low pieces of gross indecency, and vulgar buffoonery, but sometimes contained spirited satires on the character and conduct of public men.

10. We should be greatly mistaken if we supposed that the theatres in ancient Rome at all resembled those of modern times; they were stupendous edifices, some of which could accommodate thirty thousand spectators, and an army could perform its evolutions on the stage. Pompey was the first who erected a theatre of hewn store; it was capa

ble of containing 40,000 spectators. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, gradually rising above each other; the foremost row was assigned to the senators; next behind them were the equites, and at the back were the people. Columns, statues, and pictures formed the scene, at the back and side of the stage; the semicircular space in front of the stage was named the orchestra, where dances were exhibited; from its position the row of seats occupied by the senators was sometimes called the orchestra. Behind the pillars of the scene were the dressing-rooms for the actors. The stage was called the pulpit, and was about five feet above the level of the orchestra.

To remedy the defects of distance, the tragic actors wore a buskin with very thick soles to raise them above their natural size, and covered their faces with a mask, so contrived as to render the voice more clear and full1. Instead

1 Hence the mask was called persona, from personare, to sound through. From persona the English word person is derived, which

of the buskin, comic actors wore a sort of slipper called a sock.

11. The periodical festivals of the Romans were celebrated with theatrical entertainments and sports in the circus at the public expense. The most remarkable of these festivals was the secular, which occurred only at periods of 110 years. The others occurred annually, and were named from the gods to whose honour they were dedicated.

12. The Romans were a more grave and domestic people than the lively Greeks; their favourite dress, the toga or gown, was more formal and stately than the Grecian short cloak; their demeanour was more stern, and their manners more imposing. The great object of the old Roman was to maintain his dignity under all circumstances, and to show that he could control the emotions to which ordinary men too readily yield. Excessive joy or grief, unqualified admiration, or intense surprise were deemed disgraceful; and even at a funeral, the duty of lamenting the deceased was entrusted to hired mourners. Temperance at meals was a leading feature in the character of the Romans during the early ages of the republic, but after the conquest of Asia, their luxuries were more extravagant than those of any nation recorded in history. But there was more extravagance than refinement in the Roman luxury, and though immense sums were lavished on entertainments, they were destitute of that taste and elegance, more delightful than the most costly delicacies.

13. The Roman ladies enjoyed more freedom than those in any other ancient nation. They visited all places of public amusement uncontrolled, and mingled in general society. As the toga was the distinctive dress of the men, so the stola was peculiar to the women; it was, however,

properly signifies not so much an individual as the aspect of that individual in relation to civil society.