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plication to maritime affairs; and to their difcovery of the Cape of Good Hope, Great Britain is at this day indebted for her Indian com

merce.

The first adventurers contented themfelves with fhort voyages, creeping along the coaft of Africa, difcovering cape after cape; but by making a gradual progrefs fouthward, they, in the year 1497, at length difcovered and doubled the extreme cape of that continent, which opened a paffage by fea to the eastern ocean, and all thofe countries known by the names of India, China, and Japan.

While the Portuguese were intent upon a paffage to India by the eaft, Columbus, a native of Genoa, conceived a project of failing thither by the weft. His propofal being condemned by his countrymen as chimerical and abfurd, he laid his fcheme fucceffively before the courts of France, England, and Portugal, where he had no better fuccefs. Such repeated difappointments would have broken the fpirit of any man but Columbus. The expedition required expence, and he had nothing to defray it. Spain was now his only refource; and there, after eight years' attendance, he at length fucceeded, through the intereft of queen Ifabella. This princess was prevailed upon to patronife him by the reprefentation of Juan Perez, guardian of the monaftery of Rabida. He was a man of confiderable learning, and of fome credit with queen Isabella; and being warmly attached to Columbus, from his perfonal acquaintance with him and knowledge of his merit, he had entered into an accurate examination of that great man's project, in conjunction with a phyfician fettled in his neighbourhood, who was eminent for his fkill in mathematical knowledge. This investigation completely fatisfied them of the folidity of the principles on which Columbus founded his opinion, and of the probability of fuccefs in executing the plan which he propofed. Perez, therefore, fo ftrongly recommended it to queen Ifabella, that the warmly entered into the scheme, and even generously offered, to the honour of her fex, to pledge her own jewels, in order to raife as much money as might be required in making preparations for the voyage. But Santangel, another friend and patron of Columbus, immediately engaged to advance the fum that was requifite, that the queen might not be reduced to the neceffity of having recourse to that expedient.

Columbus now fet fail, anno 1492, with a fleet of three ships, upon one of the most adventurous attempts ever undertaken by man, and in the fate of which the inhabitants of two worlds were interefted. In this voyage he had a thousand difficulties to contend with; and his failors, who were often difcontented, at length began to infift upon his return, threatening, in cafe of refufal, to throw him overboard; but the firmness of the commander, and the discovery of land after a paffage of 33 days, put an end to the commotion. From the appearance of the natives, he found to his furprise that this could not be the Indies he was in queft of, and that he had accidentally discovered a new world,-of which the reader will find a more circumftantial account in that part of the following work which treats of America.

A. D.

Europe now began to emerge out of that darkness in which she had been funk fince the fubverfion of the Roman empire. Thefe difcoveries, from which such wealth was deftined to flow to the commercial nations of Europe, were accompanied and fucceeded by others of unfpeakable benefit to mankind. The invention of printing, the revival of learning, arts, and fciences, and, laftly, the happy reformation in religion, all diftinguifh the 15th and 16th centuries as the firft æra of modern hiftory. It was in these ages that the powers of Eu

1440.

rope were formed into one great political fyftem, in which each took a ftation, wherein it has fince remained, with lefs variation than could have been expected after the flocks occafioned by fo many internal revolutions, and fo many foreign wars, of which we fhall give fome account in the hiftory of each particular ftate, in the following work. The great events which happened then have not hitherto exhaufted their force. The political principles and maxims then established still continue to operate; and the ideas concerning the balance of power, then introduced or rendered general, ftill influence, in fome degree, the councils of European

nations.

Of all the kingdoms of Europe, Great Britain has for a long time enjoyed the greateft degree of profperity and glory. She ought, therefore, to be the more attentive to preferve fo brilliant a pre-eminence. A great empire cannot be continued in a happy fituation, but by wisdom and moderation. Without entering into the labyrinth of political difputes, it will be acknowledged that the unhappy conteft of Great Britain with the American colonies, and efpecially the unfuccefsful war against the new republic of France, have plunged her into difficulties; her national debt has been profufely augmented; and her taxes enormoufly increafed.

PART III.

OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF RELIGION.

DEITY is an awful object, and has ever roufed the attention of mankind; but they, being incapable of elevating their ideas to all the fublimity of his perfections, have too often brought down his perfections to the level of their own ideas. This is more particularly true with regard to thofe nations whose religion had no other foundation but the natural feelings, and more often the irregular paffions of the human heart, and who had received no light from heaven refpećting this important object. In deducing the hiftory of religion, therefore, we muft make the fame diftinction which we have hitherto obferved in tracing the progrefs of arts, fciences, and civilifation among mankind. We must separate what is human from what is divine,-what had its origin from particular revelations, from what is the effect of general laws, and of the unaffifted operations of

the human mind.

Agreeably to this diftinction, we find, that, in the firft ages of the world, the religion of the eastern nations was pure and luminous. It arofe from a divine fource, and was not then disfigured by human fancies or caprice. In time, however, thefe began to have their influence; the ray of tradition was obfcured and among those tribes which feparated at the greatest distance, and in the smalleft numbers, from the more improved focities of men, it was altogether obliterated.

In this fituation a particular people were felected by God himself to be the depofitories of his law and worthip; but the reft of mankind were left to form hypothefes upen thefe fubjects, which were more or lets

perfect, according to an infinity of circumstances which cannot properly be reduced under any general heads.

The most common religion of antiquity-that which prevailed the longeft, and extended the wideft-was POLYTHEISM, or the doctrine of a plurality of gods. The rage of fyftem, the ambition of reducing all the phænomena of the moral world to a few general principles, has occafioned many imperfect accounts, both of the origin and nature of this fpecies of worthip. For, without entering into a minute detail, it is impoffible to give an adequate idea of the fubject: and what is faid upon it in general muft always be liable to many exceptions.

One thing, however, may be obferved, that the polytheism of the ancients feems neither to have been the fruit of philofophical fpeculations, nor of disfigured traditions concerning the nature of the Divinity. It feems to have arifen during the rudeft ages of fociety, while the rational powers were feeble, and while mankind were under the tyranny of imagination and paffion. It was built, therefore, folely upon fentiment. As each tribe of men had their heroes, fo likewife they had their gods. Those heroes who led them forth to combat, who prefided in their councils, whofe image was engraven on their fancy, whofe exploits were imprinted on their memory, even after death enjoyed an existence in the imagination of their followers. The force of blood, of friendship, of affection, among rude nations, is what we cannot easily conceive: but the power of imagination over the fenfes is what all men have in fome degree experienced. Combine these two caufes, and it will not appear ftrange that the image of departed heroes should have been seen by their companions animating the battle, taking vengeance on their enemies, and performing, in a word, the fame functions which they performed when alive. An appearance fo unnatural would not excite terror among men unacquainted with evil fpirits, and who had not learned to fear any thing but their enemies. On the contrary, it confirmed their courage, flattered their vanity; and the teftimony of those who had seen it, fupported by the extreme credulity and romantic caft of those who had not, gained an univerfal affent among all the members of their fociety. A fmall, degree of reflection, however, would be fufficient to convince them, that, as their own heroes existed after death, the fame might alfo be the cafe with thofe of their enemies. Two orders of gods, therefore, would be established ;-the propitious and the hoftile; the gods who were to be loved, and those who were to be feared. But time, which wears off the impreffions of tradition, and the frequent invafions by which the nations of antiquity were ravaged, defolated, or tranfplanted, made them lofe the names and confound the characters of thefe two orders of divinities, and form various fyftems of religion, which, though warped by a thousand particular circumftances, gave no fmall indications of their firft texture and original materials. For, in general, the gods of the ancients gave abundant proof of human infirmity. They were fubject to all the paffions of men; they partook even of their partial affections; and, in many inftances, discovered their preference of one race or nation to all others. They did not eat and drink the fame fubftances with men; but they lived on nectar and ambrosia : they had a particular pleasure in fmelling the fteam of the facrifices; and they made love with an ardour unknown in northern climates. The rites by which they were worshipped naturally refulted from their character. The most enlightened among the Greeks entertained nearly the

the poems of Hefiod and Homer; and Anaxagoras, who flourished before Chrift 430 years, was the firft, even in Greece, that publicly announced the existence of one Creator and Governor of the universe.

It must be observed, however, that the religion of the ancients was not much connected either with their private behaviour, or with their political arrangements. If we except a few fanatical focieties, whofe principles do not fall within our plan, the greater part of mankind were extremely tolerant in their principles. They had their own gods, who watched over them; their neighbours, they imagined, also had theirs: and there was room enough in the universe for both to live together in good fellowship, without interfering or joftling with each other.

The introduction of Chriftianity, by inculcating the unity of God, by announcing the purity of his character, and by explaining the fervice he requires of men, produced a total alteration in the religious fentiments and belief of the civilifed part of mankind, among whom it rapidly made its way by the fublimity of its doctrine and precepts. It required not the aid of human power; it fuftained itself by the truth and wifdom by which it was characterised: but in time it became corrupted by the introduction of worldly maxims, of maxims very inconfiftent with the precepts of its divine author, and by the ambition of the clergy.

The management of whatever related to the church being naturally conferred on those who had established it, firft occafioned the elevation and then the domination of the clergy, and the exorbitant claims of the bishop of Rome over all the members of the Chriftian world. It is im poffible to defcribe, within our narrow limits, all the concomitant causes, fome of which were extremely delicate, by which this fpecies of univerfal monarchy was established. The bishops of Rome, by being removed from the control of the Roman emperors, then refiding in Conftantinople; by borrowing, with little variation, the religious ceremonies and rites established among the heathen world, and otherwife working on the credulous minds of the barbarians by whom that empire began to be difmembered; and by availing themselves of every circumftance which fortune threw in their way; flowly erected the fabric of their antichriftian power, at first an object of veneration, and afterwards of terror, to all temporal princes. The caufes of its happy diffolution are more palpable, and operated with greater activity. The moft efficacious were the invention of printing, the rapid improvement of arts, government, and commerce, which, after many ages of barbarity, made their way into Europe. The fcandalous lives of those who called themselves the "ministers of Jefus Chrift," their ignorance and tyranny, the defire natural to fovereigns of delivering themfelves from a foreign yoke, the opportunity of applying to national objects the immenfe wealth which had been diverted to the fervice of the church in every kingdom of Europe, confpired with the ardour of the first reformers, and haftened the progrefs of the Reformation. The unreasonableness of the claims of the church of Rome was demonftrated; many of her doctrines were proved to be equally unfcriptural and irrational; and fome of her abfurd mummeries and fuperftitions were expofed both by argument and ridicule. The fervices of the reformers in this refpect give them a juft claim to our veneration; but, involved as they had themselves been in the darkness of fuperftition, it was not to be expected that they fhould be able wholly to free themselves from errors; they ftill retained an attachment to fome abfurd doctrines, and preferved too much of the intolerant spirit of the church from which they had separated themfelves. With all their defects, they are entitled

to our admiration and esteem; and the reformation, begun by Luther in Germany, in the year 1517, and which took place in England, A. D. 1534, was an event highly favourable to the civil as well as to the religious rights of mankind.

We shall now proceed to the main part of our work, beginning with EUROPE,

EUROPE.

EUROPE, though the leaft extenfive quarter of the globe (containing, according to Zimmermann *, 2,627,574 square miles, whereas the habitable parts of the world, in the other quarters, are estimated at 36,666,806 fquare miles), is, in many respects, that which most deserves our attention. Here the human mind has made the greatest progress towards improvement; and here the arts, whether of utility or ornament, the sciences both military and civil, have been carried to the greatest perfection. If we except the earlieft ages of the world, it is in Europe that we find the greatest variety of character, government, and manners; and from its hiftory we derive the greateft number of facts and memorials, either for our entertainment or inftruction.

Geography difcovers to us two circumstances with regard to Europe, which perhaps have had a confiderable tendency in giving it the fuperiority over the reft of the world; firft, the happy temperature of its climate, no part of it lying within the torrid zone; and fecondly, the great variety of its furface. The effect of a moderate climate, both on plants and animals, is well known from experience. The immenfe num- 7 ber of mountains, rivers, feas, &c. which divide the different countries of Europe from each other, is likewife extremely commodious for its inhabitants. Thefe natural boundaries check the progrefs of conqueft or defpotifm, which has always been fo rapid in the extenfive plains of Africa and the Eaft: the feas and rivers facilitate the intercourse and commerce between different nations; and even the barren rocks and mountains are more favourable for exciting human industry and invention, than the natural unsolicited luxuriancy of more fertile foils. There is no part of Europe fo diverfified in its furface, fo interrupted by natural boundaries or divifions, as Greece; and we have feen that it was there the human mind began to know and to avail itself of its strength;' and that many of the arts, fubfervient to utility or pleasure, were invented, or at leaft greatly improved. What Greece therefore is with regard to Europe, Europe itfelf is with regard to the rest of the globe. The analogy may even be carried farther; and it is well deferving our attention. As ancient Greece (for we do not speak of Greece as it is at prefent, under the defpotic government of the Turks) was diftinguished, above all the reft of Europe, for the equity of its laws, and the freedom of its political conftitutions,-fo has Europe in general been remarkable for fmaller deviations, at leaft from the laws of nature and equality, than have been admitted in the other quarters of the world. Though most of the European governments are monarchical, we may difcover, on due examination, that there are a thousand little springs, which check the force and foften the rigour of monarchy. In propor

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