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formed in China, is a very natural consequence of the state in which society exists. Ancient and modern history attest with a trumpet-tongue, that, where the mind is universally influenced by idolatry, there no government can rule in perfect security. The pillars thereof must ever be in danger of being dissolved; for the heart, influenced by its inherent depravity alone, neither feels nor knows a motive for right conduct. It may be awed into submission by the grandeur and power of monarchs for a while, as it is in China; but there ever will be an under-current flowing from its marvellous source of evil, and secretly working mischief. It is only when human nature becomes deeply imbued with the divine principles of Christianity-only when mankind have the fear of God before their eyes, that they perform all their relative duties aright.

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MANDARIN IN SEDAN, BEARERS, AND SERVANT WITH LANTERN.

THE antiquity of China is indicated by the theoretically patriarchal form of its government. This is a remarkable circumstance, when coupled with the consideration that great revolutions have shaken the very foundations of the empire of China. Its institutions have been subverted by strangers, who ruled the people with a rod of iron,

but the empire has again resumed its former outward state, and the people returned to their former condition: the emperor has again, of whatever dynasty he might be, been looked up to as a father, while he has professed to govern his subjects as children.

This feature in the Chinese government is clearly unfolded both in their ritual and criminal code. In them an exact parallel is drawn between the relations in which every person stands to his own parents, and to the emperor. He suffers similar punishments for similar offences against both; he mourns, and goes unshaved, for the same period, at the death of both; and both possess similar power over his person. Hence he is bred up to civil obedience, though at the expense of his liberty; and the state has reason to expect that he will prove a quiet subject, because he has been trained in the restraints put upon him.

That the people may be conversant with the duties they owe to their parents, elders, and emperor, it is ordained that the magistrates should read, on the days corresponding to the new and full moon, some portions of the book of Sacred Instructions in public. This book is addressed to the people and how well calculated it is to teach at least the moral of obedience, the annexed extracts will show. Teaching them duty in general, it says,—"In our general conduct, not to be orderly is to fail in our duty; in serving our sovereign, not to be faithful is to fail in filial duty; in acting as a magistrate, not to be careful is to fail in filial duty; in the intercourse of friends, not to be sincere is to fail in filial duty; in arms and in war, not to be brave is to fail in

filial duty." Duty thus makes up the sum of life; and the same principle is observable in the claims of elders, which are thus enforced :-"The duty to parents and the duty to elders are indeed similar in obligation; for he who can be a pious son, will also prove an obedient younger brother; and he who is both, will, while at home, prove an honest and orderly subject, and in foreign service a faithful and courageous soldier. . . . . Mencius has said, 'Were all men to honour their kindred and respect their elders, the world would be at peace.'

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The assertion that has been made, that the fundamental principle of the Chinese government is enforced by positive laws," may be illustrated by the narration of a case which occurred in one of the central provinces-a case which shows that the state deems it necessary to treat domestic rebellion with the same severity as treason, supposing them to be allied in principle. A man, aided by his wife, had severely beaten his mother; and this being reported to the viceroy at Pekin, it was determined to punish them in a signal manner, in order to enforce the fundamental principle of the empire. And so it happened. The principal offenders were put to death; the mother of the wife was bambooed and exiled; the scholars of the district were not permitted to attend the public examination for three years; the magistrates were deprived of their office and banished; the house in which the offenders lived was razed to its very foundations; and the spot where the offence occurred was anathematized, or made accursed. This punishment took place under the sanction, and by the command, of an imperial edict, which concluded thus:-"If there be any rebellious child

ren, who oppose, beat, or degrade their parents, they shall be punished in like manner. If ye people, indeed, know the renovating principle, then fear and obey the imperial will, nor look on this as an empty declamation. For now, according to this case of Teng-chen, whenever there are the like, I resolve to condemn them, and from my heart strictly charge you to beware. I instruct the magistrates of every province severely to warn the heads of families, and elders of villages; and on the second and sixteenth of every month to read the Sacred Instructions, in order to show the importance of the relations of life, that persons may not rebel against their parents. I intend to render the empire filial."

When it is considered that this edict was addressed to a population estimated at three hundred millions, there appears to be something in the latter assertion bordering upon the ludicrous. But however that may be, the Chinese must be looked upon as a "filial" people. Taught by their sacred books, the writings of their moralists, the edicts of their emperors, and the enforcements of law, they are generally obedient to their parents and to their sovereign. Disobedient children there may be, and turbulent subjects, but these form the exception rather than the rule; the majority have learned, and practise the lesson of obedience. Else, with the physical power which such a mass of human beings must possess, how could the rulers of China enjoy the blessing of peace?

The practical wisdom displayed in the enforcement of obedience to parents by the Chinese government, is a matter for admiration. It may,

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