In the thirteenth century, some information concerning China was collected from Tartary. The conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors, and the encroachments of the Tartars upon the eastern frontiers of Europe, induced the pope to send two embassies to the Tartarian camps. When the second of these embassies arrived, they found ambassadors from Persia, India, Russia, and China; and they obtained correct information as to what part of China the Tartars had then subjugated, and some little knowledge of the people. In describing the latter, Carpini, who was at the head of this embassy, says, They seem to be a mild and humanized people; they wear no beard, and in their face rather resemble the Mongols, though their face is not so broad. They have a peculiar language of their own; and better artisans, in all sorts of work, cannot be found. Their country abounds in corn, wine, gold, silver, and silks; and, in short, in every thing desirable for life."

66

A few years posterior to the date of these embassies, Louis Ix. of France despatched two ambassadors to the Tartars, on hearing that they were well disposed toward the Christian faith. These ambassadors penetrated through the heart of Asia to Karakorum, at that time the capital of the khan of the Tartars. This city was not far from the confines of China, and it abounded with Chinese; so that the ambassadors, while there, learned much both of the country and the people.

In the meantime, commerce sent forth private adventurers, who greatly contributed to a knowledge of China. Among these the family of the Poli, of Venice, is very conspicuous. Maffeo

and Nicolo Polo, two brothers, being informed that an advantageous commercial speculation might be made with the Tartars on the Volga, went thither; and on their return they met with an ambassador from Kublai, the great khan, who invited them to his court. This was accepted, and they were held in such high estimation by Kublai, that he commissioned them to request the pope to send him one hundred learned men to teach Christianity and the "Seven Sciences" in his dominion. Shortly after they had reached Europe, Gregory x. was raised to the papal throne; and he so far complied with the khan's request as to send two individuals, who were reputed men of letters and science, as well as good theologians. At the same time Marco Polo, the son of Maffeo, was sent with some presents to the khan, and proper diplomatic credentials.

When Marco arrived, the khan had made himself master of the empire of China, and he was detained in his suite for more than twenty years. Here he had opportunities of making himself acquainted with both the country and the people. He published an account of the country in manuscript copies, and it was at first believed; but in a short time it became the fashion to decry his work as a tissue of romance.

A few years after the return of Marco Polo, one Oderic de Porteneau, a friar, seized with a desire to visit the remote and infidel countries of the east, penetrated into Southern China, and visited Cambalu. The Tartar government still existed, and on his return, he published an account of it, which agreed with that of Marco Polo. The statements of Oderic, however, were treated

with even more scepticism than those of the Venetian. From that time, until the nations of Europe commenced a system of commercial enterprise, great and mighty as the empire of China was, it was only heard of incidentally. About the commencement of the fourteenth century, an Armenian monk gave some information to Clement v. concerning the history and geography of those remote regions; and some further details were given by the Persian historian, Mirkhond, and some Persian travellers: but their accounts produced no desire in the breasts of Europeans to visit the country, or to trade with the people.

At length, in the sixteenth century, the fame of the empire reached some Portuguese, who had established themselves at Malacca; and having satisfied themselves by ocular demonstration, that such a nation existed, and proved it to the government, the Portuguese authorities sent missions to the emperor, in order to establish a free trade with the country. At first, they were permitted to trade at the port of Tamon, and afterwards at Ningpo and Chincheu; but, in consequence of their behaviour, they were successively expelled from these towns. While they were engaged in the trade at Sanshan, however, they assisted the Chinese in clearing the seas of some pirates, by whom the neighbourhood of Canton was infested; and they received, as the reward of their services, the exclusive right to trade with China for many years, and the possession of the island of Macao. The Portuguese still nominally retain this island: but Chinese soldiers mount guard at the landing-place, and Chinese edicts control the commands of the Portuguese authorities.

Thus

The discovery of the empire of China, and the early proceedings of the Portuguese in that country, excited a great sensation in Europe. A century, however, passed away, before any other nation seemed disposed to dispute their advantages. Early in the seventeenth century, the Dutch, who were their rivals in the commerce of India, determined to meet them as such on the shores of the "celestial empire." An embassy sent to the court of China for that purpose failed, chiefly, it would seem, from their singular appearance, which alarmed the Chinese, and from the aspersions of the Portuguese, who inspired the government with much suspicion of the new visitors. repulsed, and unable to obtain any Chinese goods, except through the medium of the Portuguese, the Dutch resolved to obtain by force what they were unable to do by negotiation. A fleet was fitted out and placed under the command of Admiral Kiezerzoon, who succeeded in capturing one of the Pehou islands, situated between Formosa and the main land. Still the Chinese would hold no friendly intercourse with them, alleging that they would never treat with persons who kept possession of any part of the imperial territories; and informing them, that if they would retire to Formosa, which was then out of the Chinese dominion, they would treat with them. The Dutch did retire to Formosa; but it was subsequently wrested from them by Coxinga, who governed the southern provinces of Quangsee, Quangtung, and Fokien, and who rebelled against the emperor. In their war with Coxinga, the Chinese called in the aid of the Dutch, and he fell before their united forces. This led to the establishment of

the Dutch at Canton, where they were allowed to build a house for the purpose of trade, which they soon converted into a fortress. A battery only was wanting to make it a citadel, and the Dutch were desirous of thus establishing their power in China. They employed themselves in bringing in cannon clandestinely; but their treachery being discovered, their vessels were burned, their fort demolished, all Dutchmen were banished, and trade forbidden with them on pain of death. Notwithstanding, the memory of this attempt appears to have been soon obliterated, for, in 1762, they were again permitted to establish a factory at Canton. Their trade with China, however, was interrupted by the war between England and Holland; and though, since the fall of Napoleon, it has been resumed, the Dutch have not been able to recover the relative position in the trade which they occupied anterior to that date.

The Russians have been more successful in establishing a trade with China. Involved in territorial disputes with that nation, at length negotiations ensued, and, in 1689, a treaty was signed, by which Russia, on condition of being permitted to trade with China, agreed to abandon an extensive territory on the Chinese frontier, to destroy the fortress of Albazin, and to surrender the navigation of the river Amour. This treaty has since been ratified by Peter the Great, and by it Russia has gained considerably greater privileges than have ever been accorded to any other European nation by the Chinese government. Still the trade between these two empires is one of mere barter. It is carried on solely at Kiakhta, on the frontiers of the two countries, each nation