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dispensers of the law, some cases excepted, put it into the hands of the wrong person. At the same time, the mere idea of merit being rewarded is sufficient to excite emulation in the breasts of those orders of people who are open to rewards, and sometimes they gain the prize.

Before the conquest of the Mantchoos there were only five degrees of nobility in China. The Mantchoos added four others, each of the first six being subdivided into four, and the seventh into two divisions, so that the whole consists of twentyseven ranks. The first five of these answer to the titles of dukes, counts, barons, baronets, and knights, in Europe; but for the others there are no corresponding expressions. The first two

orders rank above mandarins, even of the highest degree; the others, which are the more profusely bestowed, are less valuable to the possessor. Every title decreases with the death of the possessor, the first-born only receiving them, until they become extinct.

There is an hereditary nobility existing in China far more ancient than that of any other nation. Some date their titles back as far as the fabulous ages of Yaou and Shun; while others, more correctly, derive theirs from Confucius and other Chinese worthies. The emperors, in whose time they lived, foreseeing the benefits arising to the country from the doctrines taught by these sages, assigned to them hereditary offices, which have ever since been held by their posterity. When it is considered that this homage has been paid to genius and worth by the varied dynasties which have swayed the empire, whether natives or barbarians, it becomes a subject for admiration.

By this it will be seen that the Chinese, in their predilection for honours, carry their taste to the extreme point of absurdity. The emperor ennobles, or pretends to ennoble, even those persons who have long departed. Thus, if an officer has deserved well of his country, he makes out a patent of nobility extending to the second, third, or fourth generation of his ancestors! Various titles are also conferred upon meritorious officers who have left the world. They are created governors, presidents, overseers, etc., in the cold shades of death. But this must be looked upon as a trick of state to obtain money. The wealthy and deluded Chinese, anxious for the welfare and honour of their deceased relatives, frequently come forward and purchase what may be termed their canonization. They buy the various ranks which the emperor pretends to have at his disposal; and as soon as the patent is put into their hands, they rest satisfied that their ancestors are ennobled. This is one of the strangest delusions unfolded in the page of history: it may, indeed, be looked upon as a counterpart to that delusion which the Romish church palms upon Christendom concerning souls in purgatory. The one asks money for the honour of the dead, the other for their happiness!

The imperial favour extends beyond the confines of China. Those titles which he bestows upon princes of the blood are also bestowed upon Mongol princes and chieftains; and to those who have married a princess of the imperial house he has the power of granting two other titles, denoting the highest rank; namely, Khan, and Tapoo-nang, of which there are four degrees.

Among the Turkomans, also, he confers the title of Begs, and Akim Begs;* and in Tibet, the national titles of Tae-fun, Te-pa, and Kan-poo.

The nations which thus submit to the emperor of China, by placing their ancient and national honours in his hands, are virtually united to the empire. Alike with the mandarins, their nobility pay court to him, and receive his orders in the same haughty tone. This is the natural effect of his assumption. Setting aside the idea of his power, the very fact of his possessing the right of bestowing honours, which he does with a lavish hand, is sufficient to ensure their willing obedience. Hence it is that so many barbarian chieftains, as well as the mass of the native Chinese, bow submissively at the foot of his throne. The distribution of imperial favours being so abundant, all are led to look up to the proud ruler of China with affection and reverence, which even haughty airs and rough usage cannot diminish. It is so deep-rooted in their hearts, that it partakes of the nature of slavish servility.

THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD ESTABLISHMENT.

This division of the emperor of China's court consists of his body guard, which is quartered within the precincts of the imperial city, and at the parks of Jebol, Yuen-ming-yuen, and Moukden; of a pastoral establishment, called Kingfung-sze, placed in luxurious meadows beyond the great wall of China, where immense droves of large and small cattle are fed, partly for his own use, and partly for sacrificial purposes; of an

* This was a native honorary appellation; but it is not now acknowledged, unless conferred by the Chinese emperor.

arsenal, called Woo-pe-yuen, where his armour and weapons are kept, with all the tents and baggage necessary for a campaign; of the Shang-szeyuen, a board charged with the care of the imperial steeds; of the Kwang-choo-sze, where all the riches designed for the emperor's particular use are preserved under a court of officers; of the Ying-tsaou-sze, an office charged with the repair of the buildings, maintaining numerous artizans, and providing the coals and fuel requisite for the kitchen; of the Tung-shin-yuen, a board of officers who have the care of the gardens and parks of the emperor; of the Chang-e-sze, an office which regulates his domestic establishment; of the Shing-hing-sze, a particular office for the punishment of the inmates of the inner palace, for trifling derelictions of duty; of a medical establishment, for the benefit of the ladies in the harem; of the Lwan-e-wei, a court which keeps the travelling equipages in order; and the Taepuh-she, which provides the necessary horses and camels for the emperor when he proceeds on his hunting excursions.

The number of individuals employed in these various departments of the emperor of China's household establishment is immense. The officers employed in them are of various ranks, from the nobleman downward. The superior officers are frequently the personal friends of the emperor; and though their salary may be trifling, an office in the imperial household establishment is a sure step to higher preferments in other departments. Most of the governor-generals, and presidents of the supreme boards, have indeed passed through them to their present position. While serving in

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the palace they learned to court the favour of their master, and thus ensured their further exaltation. Apart from the various offices described in the imperial household establishment, or, as it is called in Chinese, the Nuy-woo-foo, there exists a corps of five hundred and seventy men, denominated Ling-she-wei-foo, instituted for the protection of the emperor. This corps is divided into four classes, and is placed under the command of a Nuy-tachin, or great minister of the interior; and the soldiers of which it is composed are the descendants of the bravest Mantchoos who subverted the throne of China. The commanders of the corps are relations of the emperor, and are on terms of great intimacy with him. But this is, perhaps, chiefly owing to their proximity to his person; for they, with those under them, not only stand sentinel at his apartment, but also take care of his household. Probably, no class of persons in China are more open to preferment than these Mantchoo defenders of the throne. Several of them hold the ranks of general and lieutenant-general, while others have been sent abroad into the provinces as civilians; and many are even ministers of the cabinet.

SACRIFICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS.

The religion of the state in China consists of mere ceremonies, and ecclesiastical establishments are instituted solely for their observance. These are, 1. The Tae-chang-sze, the members of which have to announce to the emperor that on such a day a festival is to take place, and to prepare the sacrificial animals, as well as to receive the emperor, or his proxy, on the day of ceremony.

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