THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

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4. The lowest rank of the people had few, if any, rights of their bwn. There were some free laborers who worked for hire, as men do now; but the great proportion of the lower class were slaves. In towns there was another class of people, called Burghers. These were merchants, or tradesmen, who joined together in little societies; but in the time of William I. they were not a numerous, or at least not a powerful, body.

5. As a part of his plan for reducing the Anglo-Saxons to complete subjection, William used every means to introduce the Norman or French language into England, and to eradicate that of the Anglo-Saxons. He altered many of the old Saxon laws, and established new ones in their stead, which were all written in Norman French; and he ordered that law business should be carried on in that language.

6. He also required that French instead of Saxon should be taught in the schools. But it is easier to conquer a kingdom than to change a language; and after an ineffectual struggle, which lasted three centuries, the Saxon got the better at last, and, with some intermixture of Norman, forms the basis of our own language.

7. Even the Norman words we retain are often so altered by our way of pronouncing them that a Frenchman would not recognize them. Thus many people are sadly puzzled to find any meaning in the words "O yes," with which the crier of our courts commences his proclamations; for they do not know that the crier's O yes is a corruption of the old Norman word “ Oyez”—“ Hear ye.”

CHAPTER XXX.

The Feudal System.—Description of a Norman Castle.

1. THE lands which William took from the Anglo-Saxons, he bestowed on his Norman barons, upon condition that they should always be ready to attend him in battle. They were called the king's vassals. The barons distributed their lands among their own followers on the same condition, and thus these became the vassals of the barons. These again had others under them, who held them on the like terms.

It

2. Thus, whenever the baron marched to war, his vassals marched with him. This sort of bond between the king and his barons, and the barons and their retainers, was called the Feudal System. had its origin upon the continent, and had been long established in France, before William introduced it into Britain.

3. The barons lived like so many little kings, each in his own castle, with his train of followers, who bore pompous titles, similar to those of the officers of the royal court. This haughty seclusion

and Saxons? 4. What of the lowest class of people? Who were the Burghers? 5, 6. What did William do in reference to the language? With what ultimate success?

XXX.-1. How were the lands of Britain distributed? 2. What was the system of holding hands called? 3. How did the barons live? 4. What difference between the

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DESCRIPTION OF A NORMAN CASTLE.

gave great offence to the Saxon nobles, who were remarkably social and convivial in their habits.

4. They did not care for the shabbiness of their own dwellings, which were only built of wood, and thatched, if they could but eat and drink, and have merry-makings; while the Normans, on the contrary, were frugal in their manner of living, but very extravagant in their buildings.

5. These, however, were comfortless, gloomy dwellings. In order to convey an idea of an ancient castle of this period, we may describe that of Rochester in England, which, though a mere ruin, is one of the most perfect now remaining. There is a lofty tower, standing in a garden, surrounded on all sides by high walls, or at least the remains of high walls.

6. The tower was called the keep, in which the baron and his family lived, and in which all the stores and arms and valuable things were kept. Under the keep was the dungeon for prisoners. The chapel also stood in this enclosure, the whole of which was called the inner bailey. In one corner of the walls is a little ruinous tower, through which there is an entrance.

7. Without this garden is another enclosure, taking a larger circuit which may still be traced by the remains of thick solid walls. with towers at different distances. The space between the outer and inner walls was called the outer bailey, and here were the lodg ings for the soldiers, the stables, and the workshops of the blacksmiths, carpenters, and other artificers.

Normans and Saxons? 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Give an account of a castle. What was the keep What the inner bailey? What the outer bailey? What the postern?

8. There was generally a small and concealed entrance to the castle, by which the lord might go secretly in and out. This was called the postern. Rochester Castle is now but the shell of a building, so that we can only conjecture that the two rooms in the centre part, which have ornamented fireplaces, and pillars on the walls, were the state apartments; and that the siceping-rooms were the little dark recesses, which are to be seen as you go up the winding stairs that lead to the battlements.

9. These rooms of state were in the third story, and have great windows, which, however, were placed high in the lofty apartments, to secure the occupants against weapons discharged from without. The two lower stories had no windows, but were lighted merely by loop-holes. Such was a Norman castle of the twelfth century.

CHAPTER XXXI.

William Rufus.—Quarrels between the Sons of William the
Conqueror.-Instances of their Generosity.

1. WILLIAM the Conqueror left three sons. To Robert, the eldest, he devised Normandy; the crown of England he gave to William, and to the third, named Henry, he left the fortune of his mother, Matilda.

2. William was twenty-seven years old when he became king. He resembled his father in the sternness of his countenance, as well as in his great bodily strength and activity. His hair was red, on which account he obtained the surname of Rufus. He stammered in his speech, especially when he was angry, which, if historians are to be believed, was very often.

3. He was brave in war, but had not any of the great or good qualities of his father; for he was irreligious, and a lover of low company and deep drinking. He was very passionate, and had no principles, either of honor or honesty.

4. His father was scarcely dead, when he set out for England, to secure the inheritance which was left him, and to seize upon the royal reasures. The Anglo-Norman barons were very sorry to have him become king, and engaged in a rebellion, to place his elder brother, Robert, on the throne.

5. William Rufus now found it convenient to make friends with the Anglo-Saxons, and he promised to restore many of their rights and privileges. By their help he speedily subdued the rebellion of the barons, but he never remembered to fulfil his fair pledges to those who had aided him.

6. William and Robert never agreed but upon one occasion, and then they joined to oppress Henry. His inheritance had been

XXXI.-1. How did the Conqueror dispose of his dominions? 2, 3. What is said of William? Why called Rufus? 4, 5. By whose assistance did he put down the rebellion of the barons? 6, 7, 8. On what occasion did Robert and William agree? Relate

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ABOUT THE CRUSADES.

left to him in money. Robert, who was very extravagant, had been glad to sell a part of Normandy to him, and now, in concert with William, sought to deprive him of it.

7. Henry would not tamely give it up, and, with a small number of men, retired to a strong castle, called St. Michael's Mount, where he was closely besieged by the united forces of his brothers. He was nearly reduced by the scarcity of water, when Robert, hearing of his distress, granted him permission to supply himself, and also sent him some barrels of wine for his own use.

8. Being reproved by William for this generosity, Robert replied, What, shall I suffer my brother to die of thirst? Where shall we find another when he is gone?" The king also performed an act of generosity, which, from his character, was not to be expected of him.

9. Riding out alone one day to take a survey of the fortress, he was attacked by two soldiers, and thrown from his horse. One of them drew his sword, and was about to kill him, when the king exclaimed, "Hold, knave! I am the King of England." The soldier suspended his blow, and raised the king from the ground with many expressions of respect. For his forbearance, the man received a handsome reward, and was taken into the king's service.

10. Henry was soon after obliged to surrender, and having thus lost everything, he, with a few faithful followers, who would not forsake him in his distress, wandered from place to place, often in want of food, and always without a home.

CHAPTER XXXI'.

The Crusades.

1. IT had long been considered an act of great piety to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, to visit our Saviour's sepulchre. At the decline of the Roman power, Jerusalem had fallen into the hands of the Saracens, who were not only the bravest, but also the most civilized people of Asia, at least of those who had intercourse with Europe.

2. While the Saracens remained masters of the Holy City, the Christian pilgrims were permitted to pay their devotions unmolested. About the year 1065, the Turks, who were at that time a very ignorant and brutal people, became masters of Jerusalem, and treated the pilgrims with great cruelty, and endeavored to prevent their visiting the sepulchre.

3. One of these pilgrims, called Peter the Hermit, though only a poor priest, made himself more famous than the most powerful king of his time. On his return from the Holy Land, inflamed by religious zeal, and by resentment against the Turks, he went about

the instance of Robert's generosity. 9. What of the king? 10. What became of Henry?

XXXII.-1. What is said of pilgrimages? 2. When did the Turks take Jerusalem? What was the consequence? 3. What did Peter the Hermit do? 4. What inducements

ABOUT THE CRUSADES.

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from country to country, exhorting the princes and nobles to go and fight the pagans, and drive them from Jerusalem.

FIGHT BETWEEN THE CRUSADERS AND TURKS.

4. The pope entered warmly into the cause. He promised a complete forgiveness of their sins, however enormous they might be, to all such as should go on this holy expedition. Various temporal advantages were offered as inducements. Those who had borrowed money were to pay no interest for it during the time they were absent, and the poor debtor was discharged from all his debts by assuming the cross, as it was called.

5. Every person who engaged in the enterprise had a piece of red cloth in the form of a cross sewed upon the left shoulder of his cloak. Hence it was called a crusade, and those who engaged in it were called crusaders.

6. The French entered most zealously into the cause, and we must refer the reader to the history of that country for a full account of the seven great expeditions which left Europe to fight against the Infidels, in the whole of which the French acted a leading part. We will not burden our present history by a repetition of the whole details, but in the following chapters shall speak of those only in which the English were conspicuous.

7. It may be necessary to remind the reader that the Crusaders took the city of Jerusalem, and retained possession of it for about one hundred years, when it was reconquered by Saladin, a distinguished king and general of the Saracens.

3. The rage for crusading continued from the time of Peter the Hermit, in 1096, till 1291, a period of nearly two hundred years: during which Europe was drained of her wealth, and many millions of lives were sacrificed, without accomplishing the proposed object.

were held out by the pope? 5. Whence the name crusade, and crusaders? 7. How long did Jerusalem remain in the power of the Christians? Who took it from them? 8. How