discussion of this question; but the Pope seemed to feel as much interest in the matter as if he had been one of our own southern politicians. His knowledge of the geography of our country rather surprised me at the time; but I afterwards learned that he had formerly been for many years Præfect of the Propaganda, during which time the whole foreign correspondence was submitted to him; and he is therefore somewhat acquainted with those parts of the United States in which there are Roman Catholic Missionaries.

After about twenty minutes there was a pause in the conversation, when he bowed to us, rang a small bell on the table, I suppose to summon the usher, and we commenced, according to etiquette, backing out of the room. The Pope, however, immediately walked into the recess of a window near him, (his usual custom, I am told, to relieve strangers from the awkwardness of so singular a mode of exit,) and we were thus enabled to turn our backs to him, and leave the apartment in the ordinary way.

At the close of a presentation it is customary for the Pope to bless the rosaries, crucifixes, medals, &c., which have been brought for that purpose. An attendant, therefore, was at hand to receive them, and some of the party having come well provided, the articles were carried in to His Holiness, and in a short time brought out again, with the additional value they had received from their consecration.

Nothing can be so joyless as the life of the sovereign Pontiff. Weighed down as he is by cares and business, with no means of recreation, the quiet and seclusion of the cloister would be a happy exchange. They who only think of him as a temporal Monarch, or witness his splendour amidst the ceremonies of the Church, know little of the dull uniformity in which his days are passed. Four centuries ago, the Popes, in consideration of their temporal sovereignty, displayed in their palaces the same magnificence and festivity which were witnessed at other courts. The old chronicles describe to us fêtes and pageants and tournaments, which certainly displayed more of the spirit of this world than of the next. But now a character of austerity seems outwardly at least to mark the pontifical court. The vast and gloomy apartments of the Vatican are deserted, and as you pass through them you meet no one but the officials of the palace, or some Ecclesiastic gliding along with a subdued look and noiseless step. You might imagine yourself in a monastery of Carthusians. The Pope, indeed, is at all times the slave of the most rigid etiquette. The heavy robes of his office trammel his steps, and he leads a life of restraint and confinement. A walk in the formal gardens of the Vatican or Quirinal, a quiet ride among the mournful ruins of former ages, or a visit to some church, filled perhaps with monuments which announce how short were the reigns of his predecessors,— -are his only sources of relaxation without the walls of his own palace.*

In the days of Leo X., the hours which were spent around the table of the Pontiff were devoted to the highest social enjoyment. While literature was reviving, it was there that its progress was discussed, and plans were canvassed and hints given, which constantly suggested to this Sovereign of the house of Medici new schemes for restoring its former glory. Philosophers, orators, and artists gathered there; genius was encouraged to attempt its loftiest flight, and the poet sang his noblest verses to the music of the sweet lyre, certain of a favourable audience. The deep mysteries of science, and the lighter graces of literature, found equal favour

* Eustace, Class. Tour, vol. iii, p. 346.

with the princely Leo; and in his presence the subtle alchymist from the far East, and the gay troubadour of Provence, were seen side by side. There seemed, then, to be an inspiration in those saloons, and from the halls of the Vatican the new Augustan age first dawned upon the world. So it had been before at Avignon; and as we explored the ruined palace of the Popes, we thought more of Petrarch, who came thither from Vaucluse to recite his sweet sonnets, than we did of the Pontiff and Cardinals, whose applause he sought to win. But now this, too, is changed, and custom requires that the table of the Pope should be occupied by himself alone. His repasts are solitary, unenlivened even by friendly converse. In many respects, indeed, this change is a favourable one, and the austerity of the present day far better becomes the head of the Roman Church than the gay pageantry of the former centuries; yet it necessarily makes his life solitary and cheerless.

Elected, as the Popes are, at an advanced age, they must, of course, follow each other in rapid succession. Gregory XVI., therefore, having been elected in 1831, has had a longer reign than usual. He is not a man of great talents, or remarkable for any particular traits which pointed him out for the office, but was elected, as is frequently the case, amidst the strife of parties. On such occasions, some inoffensive, unexceptionable person, generally of advanced age, is chosen. He seems to share fully in all the antiquated prejudices of his Church, and has lately issued an edict forbidding all railroads within the Papal dominions. It was proposed to construct one from Rome to Naples, and the King of Naples was very anxious to have it undertaken. In fact, during the winter he arrived at Rome, and it was stated that this was the object of his visit; but the Pope was inexorable. The court fears its subjects having too great facilities for travelling, lest a further acquaintance with the world might shake their faith. And yet Rome is supported almost entirely by the money of foreigners, and, should all visiters abandon it for three years, the city would be given up to famine.

What a strange spectacle does this history of the Popedom present! Aged men, reigning but a short time,-insulated individuals, deriving no claim from relationship to those who went before them, and yet, amidst all the changes of the world, bequeathing their authority to those who came after them! The unbroken line stretches back from him whom we saw today in the Vatican to those Bishops "appointed unto death" who ruled the Christians of the imperial city when they met in the catacombs of St. Sebastian, or died as martyrs in the Flavian amphitheatre. Perhaps seventeen centuries ago some of the predecessors of Gregory XVI., as they saw in the distance the smoke of heathen sacrifice ascend from the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, were unconsciously standing on the very spot where their own magnificent St. Peter's was afterwards to be founded. Yet, great as is the change in their situation, is it not equally so in the manner in which they bear the apostolic office? Would Clemens, "whose name,' St. Paul tells us, 66 was written in the book of life," have recognised as his successors the lordly Prelates of the middle ages, trampling on the necks of Kings, and crushing thrones with a rod of iron? Alas! before the days of Christian unity return, Rome must go back to earlier principles, remembering the heritage of suffering which once she received, and by which she grew to greatness. Laying aside her diadem, and resuming once more her ancient crown of thorns, the world must see her, sitting no longer so lordly, but rather ready to rejoice if again she should be counted worthy to suffer.

Then, when purified by trial, she goes forth to her holy work, poor humanity will greet her with joy, as she comes preaching the Gospel of peace. Yea, the churches of the world will make answer to her call, as they welcome her to their fellowship, feeling that again, after long centuries of warfare, with one mouth and one heart they can all profess the "faith which was once delivered unto the saints."-Christmas Holidays in Rome.

THE HISTORY OF THE DIAMOND:

BEING THE SUBSTANCE OF A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE

LITERARY SOCIETY OF GUERNSEY, MARCH 30TH, 1847.

BY JOHN MURRAY, ESQ., M. A., &c.

66

THE diamond appears to have been known in the most remote times: it formed one of the gems in the breastplate of the Jewish High Priest. On it was engraved "Naphtali," the name of one of the twelve tribes. The Prophet Jeremiah adverts to the point of a diamond, as employed by the engraver. What the Urim and Thummin were, we know not. They are Hebrew nouns, plural, and literally signify LIGHTS and PERFECTIONS.' Gems would seem to be implied; and it is by no means improbable, that they were diamonds of exceeding brightness and splendour, which, peculiarly refracting the rays of light, might announce the response. Be this as it may, it is worthy of remark, that the two largest diamonds among the crown-jewels of Persia have specific names or titles; namely, "the Sea of Glory," and "the Mountain of Splendour." It was certainly employed by the ancients in etching: itself has been engraved with a figure of Mars and Hercules surmounting the hydra; and the Duke of Bedford has, if I mistake not, a diamond with an antique head engraved on it.

There is an ancient (Posidonius?) gold ring in the British Museum with an octohedral diamond, being a natural crystal; and there were four naturally-crystallized diamonds in the clasp of the mantle of Charlemagne. It was supposed to cure insanity, and to be an antidote to poison; yet Paracelsus was said to have been poisoned by diamond-powder. The Greeks called the diamond adamas, "unconquerable : " hence adamant and adamantine.

Newton conjectures that the diamond was inflammable. Boetius de Boot, in 1609, had hazarded an idea of the same kind. The first grand experiment on the combustion of the diamond was made in the presence of Cosmo, Grand Duke of Tuscany. When exposed to the focus of the burning mirror of Parker, now in the possession of the Emperor of China, the plates or lamine were observed to open and to shut like the petals of a flower. Both Macquer and Guiton de Morveau observed the diamond to burn, and it was readily consumed in the great burning-mirror of Tchirnhausen. Lavoisier obtained carbonic acid gas as the product of its combustion in oxygen. Clouet and Sir George Mackenzie converted soft iron into steel by the introduction of diamond-powder. The same result was obtained by Mr. Children in his gigantic galvanic battery. Sir H. Davy's experiment at Florence, with the Grand Duke's burning-mirror, proved that the diamond was pure carbon; the diamond was kindled in a globe of pure oxygen; the product was an equal volume of carbonic acid gas. The original bulk was not diminished; neither was there any deposition of aqueous vapour. This was amply confirmatory of the elegant experiment of Smith

son Tennant, who passed a stream of pure oxygen over the diamond enclosed in an incandescent gold-tube. By the compound gas blow-pipe I succeeded in effecting the complete fusion of the diamond.

The characteristics of the diamond consist in its extreme hardness: the corundrun alone makes any approach to it; yet I have seen diamonds that appeared to have been rolled, or abraded, and sometimes pitted. Diamonds have a peculiar grating when two or more are rubbed together in the hand; and they are also distinguished for their high refractive property in reference to light. A fine brilliant will shine like a fixed star when a ray of light darts from it; and when in contact with the prime conductor of an electrical machine, and the spark taken from it, the same beautiful phenomenon is presented.

The diamond crystallizes in various geometric forms, as the octohedron, &c. In the British Museum there is a diamond imbedded in gold from the Minas Geräes. There is also one diamond within another. Two are agglutinated together, and each distinctly crystallized.

Diamonds are found sometimes coloured, but more frequently colourless. Occasionally, they are also found party-coloured. I am possessed of a yellow diamond and naturally crystallized. Sometimes the diamond is found muddy, with flaws and cross-grains, &c., which materially diminish the value of the gem. Yellow is the least valuable of coloured diamonds. These diamonds are rose, blue, green, and black; and they are rare and costly. I have seen brown diamonds; but such are of inferior worth.

The diamond strikes fire with steel, and cuts even sapphires and rubies. Indeed, it cuts itself; for diamonds can only be cut and polished by themselves in fragments or powder.

Its structure is lamellar, that is, it may be separated into plates; and of this circumstance the lapidary avails himself. The temperature required for its combustion is about 5,000 degrees, F. The specific gravity of the diamond may be estimated at 3,500, water being 1,000.

In the eastern world the diamond has been found in the kingdom of Golconda and Visapour : these are the sites where it has been more abundantly found also in the Peninsula of Malacca, and in the island of Borneo. In the Brazils it has been found in the mountainous districts of Serro do Frio. In India the diamond is discovered in a kind of indurated ochrey gravel, in detached crystals; and in the Brazils it is obtained from the gravel or cascalhao, which consists chiefly of rounded quartz pebbles, of various sizes, mixed with sand, oxyde of iron, and blue, yellow, and white topazes, and grains of gold. Such was a specimen of cascalhao presented to me by the late Mr. John Mawe.

The diamonds of the Rio Pardo have a green tint, and are costly. The Serro do Frio has ever been considered the best diamond-ground; but, according to Mr. Mawe, its zenith is passed.

Perrott, of St. Petersburg, is of opinion that the diamond is the produce of volcanic action on carbon, &c. It seems to me more probable, that it has a vegetable origin, like amber. The tabasheer, or vegetable opal, secreted by the bamboo, and wood-stone by the tectona grandis, is not more remarkable. As to the source of colour, metallic oxydes are found in the ashes of vegetables.

Diamonds are discovered on the summits of the loftiest mountains, as well as in deep ravines and the beds of rivers, whither they may have been brought down by the débâcle. From 1801 to 1806 the expenses of working the diamond-ground of the Brazils amounted to £204,000. The diamonds

sent to the Treasury at Rio de Janeiro weighed 115,675 carats, and the value of gold, in the same period, was £17,300; the cost of the diamonds, therefore, to the Government, was 33s. 9d. per carat. The average does not exceed 20,000 carats annually.

Diamonds were discovered in Serro do Frio about a century ago, and some were sent to Holland; but they were supposed less hard and inferior to those of the East; for which opinion, however, there were no solid grounds. Two great influxes of diamonds into the market, by which the price was materially affected, have taken place: one of these at the period referred to, and the other during the French Revolution in 1793.

The Treasury of the Brazils may be considered as a superb casket of jewellery. The largest and finest are retained, and the rest sent to the Brazilian Ambassador for sale, and remain for security in the Bank of England.

It should be added, that several diamonds which had been found in Africa were purchased some time ago at Algiers, and the gem has likewise been discovered among the Ural mountains. On the 22d of June, 1821, on the west side of the Ural, about three hundred and sixty miles west to the town of Perm, in the Bizer gold-wash belonging to the Countess Porlier, seven were found. In 1826, Maurice Englehardt suggested the probability of finding diamonds from the peculiar indications presented. A diamond, rough and of considerable value, was discovered in Ireland, in the district of Fermanagh, in the bed of a brook. The detail was supplied me by Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, who had the diamond in his possession.

Diamonds are cut in various forms, to which specific names are applied : these are the brilliant, the rose, and the table. The rose is in the form of a dome, covered with facets, in the form of equilateral triangles: it is almost entirely in relief. The table diamond is little else than a mere plate or slab ; thin, though possessed of superficial extent. The upper part of the rose diamond is called the crown, and the lower edge the teeth.

In the brilliant, one-third rises in relief above the setting; and two-thirds of the entire depth are below the ring, and apparently lost to view. The various parts of the brilliant are called the culet, the lowest point; the table, or top; and the girdle. The diameter of the culet is one-fifth that of the table. The embedded part of the brilliant is called culasse; and the facets, pavillons. The mathematical proportion of these and their relative arrangement are essentially necessary. The brilliant was an improvement on the table diamond introduced by Bergem in the seventeenth century. There is a diamond-mill at Amsterdam; but many of the diamonds cut in Holland are afterwards re-cut in this country; and the English lapidaries are very properly considered the first diamond-cutters in the world. A model of the rough diamond, in lead, is first operated upon, and is cut with mathematical precision, and with the least possible expenditure of material.

According to the estimate of Mr. Jeffries, the value of a diamond is in the duplicate ratio of the weight. Thus, an uncut stone being £2 per carat of 4 grains, a brilliant would be 2×2×2=£8 per one carat. Two carats would be 2×8×2= £32; one of three carats, 3×8×3=£72; one of four carats, 4x8x4=£128, &c. The rose is of less value than a brilliant, and may be estimated at from £4 to £5 the first carat. A brilliant of only three carats may be spread five; that is to say, it may have the same superficial extent, yet be wanting in depth. There is a gauge used by jewellers to ascertain its comparative size. The rough diamond is called bort; minute angular crystals are termed points, and are set in glaziers' instruments for cutting glass.

It is curious that only the natural point will cut glass;