made divisible into such simple parts, that conceptions of vital action might be attached to them, equally simple as those of gravity, elasticity, &c., connected with unorganised bodies,—will probably never be realised. But although these conceptions will never attain the greatest possible simplicity, as regards the connection of the constituent parts in an organic whole; we can, nevertheless, approach to that simplicity, and we do approach to it now that we have commenced to establish a connection between form, matter, and function.

"For these reasons a brief survey of the elementary forms of organised parts is at present peculiarly suitable. Where we have as yet but insufficient knowledge of the mutual connection of form, matter, and function, which is too often the case, it will be useful to become acquainted with the forms, though it be only as a part of the chemical history of the organic body. The chemist ought to see something more than gelatine in gelatinous tissue, and the histologist something more than fibres of a determined form. It appears to me, that it is equally necessary for the chemist to know the elementary forms of the tissues, as to know that alum crystallises as an octohedron. It is chiefly to the investigations of Schleiden and of Schwann that we are indebted for our knowledge of these elementary forms." P. 353.

There then follows a concise and excellent account of the Cell-theory as developed by those enquirers, as well as an appreciation of the various objections and modifications that have been subsequently advanced. An extract or two illustrative of this subject may be given.

"But whatever conception we may have of the cell-formation, it is entirely undeniable, 1o That, as there are soluble inorganic substances, which in certain conditions crystallize, so there are soluble organic substances, which in certain conditions form nucleoli, kernels, and cells. 2° That these little organs maintain themselves, and preserve their specific characters, as individuals do by generation, according to the universal law of organic nature, that, the conditions being the same, like produces like. 3° That the endogenous formation of cells is the result of the conversion of organic substances into such as are similar to those of the generating cell itself. The substance must first be made similar to that which has a form, before it can assume that form. 4° That the generating cell, therefore, has but one function to perform-the preparation of a substance, identical with that of which itself consists. This substance being once prepared, its organisation is as inevitable a consequence, as crystallisation is a consequence of the mixing of nitric acid and baryta water,—of sulphuric acid and potash, &c. 5° That the parent cell, therefore, does not give a form to the young cells, any more than a mother gives a form to her child. A generating being does nothing more than secrete a substance, which, under certain circumstances, can assume a form similar to that of its parent. In this respect there is no difference whatever between the propagation of the higher animals, and the multiplication of cells." P. 367.

Upon the differences between the vegetable and animal cells, Dr. Mulder thus remarks :

:

"The cells of plants present some points of similarity with those of animals, but at the same time they are characterized by important differences. The most essential point of similarity is, undoubtedly, the independence of their existence

and action.

"But the differences between vegetable and animal cells are as great as the difference of the orders of beings to which they respectively belong. A vegetable cell cannot produce an animal tissue, neither can an animal cell give rise to a vegetable one. The substances from which the former cells are built up, are entirely different from those of the latter. In not one animal cell has even a

1847)

Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy.

415

trace ever been found of that substance which constitutes the whole of an unincrusted vegetable cell, viz. cellulose. The latter being in all plants, without exception, the material of the original cells, is the cause of the similarity in the structure and functions of plants; and its absence in animals is the cause of the difference between vegetable and animal cells. However cells may be changed by age, the cellulose never entirely disappears, though other substances are often deposited upon it.

"Another remarkable difference between the cells of plants and those of animals is, that the former have a great tendency to preserve-the latter to losethe cellular form. With the exception of the different kinds of epithelium, feathers, cartilaginous tissue, and a few other substances, the animal tissues, when full grown, always consist of transformed cells or other original particles, produced from cell kernels. These particles have often retained nothing of what they were during their development, except the cell kernel or nucleus, and sometimes not even this; whilst, on the other hand, the great mass of plants, both vascular and cellular, continues to consist of real cells, of which only the walls increase in thickness. Even those parts which are called vessels by botanists,with the exception of the laticiferous and the spiral vessels, are nothing but a kind of elongated cells, and to them, therefore, the name of cells is equally applicable.

"There still rests, alas! a thick cloud over our knowledge of the cells of plants, although the most acute philosophers have, with the greatest exertion, directed their attention to the subject. Different cellular systems, though similar in form, though apparently of the same chemical composition, though drawing their food from the same source, produce very different substances. In general the greatest conformity prevails in regard to the cells of plants, notwithstanding the variety in the form and substance of their products. One universal substance, cellulose, exists in all plants, constituting the basis, the material of their cells. But this very fact, that one single substance can assume the most different forms, prevents us as yet from giving any satisfactory exposition of this part of natural science." P. 399.

FURTHER REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS IN LUNACY TO THE LORD CHANCELLOR. Presented to both Houses of Parliament. 8vo. pp. 500. 1847.

THE article on Insanity in our present Number was already in type when this "Report" came to hand; but so gratifying and interesting are some of its contents that we do not deem it advisable to postpone our notice of them. We have repeatedly had to bring under our readers' consideration the present imperfect provisions for the reception, management, and supervision of lunatics; and it is very gratifying to find that the Acts which recently received the sanction of the Legislature, have already done much to remedy some of these evils, and possess a sufficient power to cope with others yet remaining. We certainly were not prepared to anticipate that so much would have been accomplished in so short a time, and its having been so furnishes ample proof that the Commissioners have entered upon their task in good earnest, and are determined that their posts shall remain no sinecures. So far from this, a brief statement of the extent of the * FF

field over which their labours have to extend will show that these are very onerous, and the responsibilities incurred proportionally weighty.

:

Thus in England and Wales alone there were at the beginning of the present year 177 County Asylums, Hospitals, and Licensed Houses; 437 separate establishments for single patients; and 596 Union Workhouses, containing imbecile or insane paupers, varying in numbers from 1 to about 100 in each workhouse. On the 1st Jan. 1847, these various establishments contained 26,516 lunatics: so that the aggregate number of these, together with the various committees, visitors, medical officers, attendants, and servants, cannot be fairly estimated at less than 30,000 persons. On a rough estimate, the aggregate amount of money annually expended for the maintenance of lunatics, or administered on their behalf, exceeds £750,000; and if to this amount be added the expense of maintaining many families cast upon the parish, and the interest of the large sums invested in the Public Lunatic Establishments, the total expenditure can be little less than 1,000,000 annually; while the capital invested in private and public establishments must amount to several millions. If to the 30,000 English lunatics above mentioned, we add the 12,397 returned as appertaining to Ireland, and the 3413 lunatic Scotch poor; together with the private patients, attendants, &c. in each country, we have an aggregate of nearly fifty thousand persons who are, in the United Kingdom, directly or indirectly, involved in the subject of Lunacy.

The Commission is thus composed: Lord Ashley (Chairman), Lord Seymour, Mr. Vernon Smith, Mr. Gordon, Mr. Barlow, Dr. Turner, Dr. Hume, Dr. Prichard, Mr. Procter, Mr. Mylne, Mr. Campbell, and Mr. Lutwidge (Secretary). Three of these gentlemen being physicians and three barristers, constitute the Visiting Commission, all visitations, according to the Act, being made conjointly by a physician and barrister. Ordinary meetings of the Commission are held at least once a week, at which the attendance of one legal and one medical Commissioner is required; while the most important subjects are referred to monthly meetings, at which all the Legal and Medical Commissioners, not otherwise urgently employed on the business of the Commission, attend. Respecting the business hitherto transacted, we find the following observations :

"The necessity of visiting numerous Workhouses containing persons of unsound mind, has added exceedingly to the labours of the Visiting Commissioners. In effect, the whole time of the Legal and Medical Commissioners has been absorbed by the business of the Commission, by visitations; by examination of plans, estimates, and accounts; by forwarding the official correspondence; by long and frequent interviews with magistrates, architects, and private individuals; and by attending the Boards held for the despatch of business. Questions of considerable nicety have frequently occurred-some relating to the existing law, as it affects lunatics: others as it relates to County Asylums: others having reference to the state of mind of individual patients, the legality of their confinement, their fitness for liberation, their treatment whilst in confinement, and the due application of their property, &c.

"The amount of ordinary business transacted at this office has far exceeded our anticipations, and has rendered necessary the constant employment of several additional clerks. Besides which, the time and attention of the Board and of individual Commissioners have been much taken up by various inquiries of a special nature, which have considerably impeded the general business of the

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Improved Condition of the Insane.

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Commission. In the case of the Haydock inquiries alone, the time of the four Commissioners was occupied (at two different periods) for 18 days; ten days at least, in addition, were devoted to the Reports consequent upon the inquiries; and eight meetings of the Board (each occupying upon an average six hours) were held, and entirely devoted to the purpose of receiving and considering evidence relating to this particular subject. Several other cases have also occurred which necessarily occupied considerable time, and required much deliberation.

"Without taking into consideration various meetings of Commissioners (not being regular Boards) or the daily attendance at the Office of the Legal and Medical Commissioners, when not engaged on Circuit, there have been held, in the course of the first 18 months of their Commission, 107 regular Board Meetings (our Chairman almost invariably presiding); in addition to which, the Legal and Medical Commissioners have each, upon an average, visited 409 Asylums and other places receiving Lunatics; have seen 17,749 patients; and have travelled 10,776 miles." P. 135.

Satisfactory is it to state that all this labour has not been in vain ; and that, if in some points they call for amelioration, as a whole the new Acts work well and efficiently. Not only is supervision much more active and regular than heretofore; but it is more effectual, since the Commissioners can, through the medium of the Lord Chancellor or Secretary of State (and have done so), revoke the licences of private houses; and compel the adoption of improvements in those intended for paupers. To them, too, are referred the plans, estimates, and sites for the new asylums, in order that opinions resulting from their now extensive experience of the requirements of the Insane may be pronounced. Their interference, as the present Report exhibits, has been very beneficial in several instances. The result of the increased vigilance and power is, that a great improvement has been manifested in some of the establishments which, by the Report of 1844, were pronounced to be in a very faulty condition. The general disposition on the part of magistrates, proprietors, and others who have to do with the insane, seems to be the yielding a cheerful acquiescence in suggestions, which the Commissioners seem to exert a praiseworthy forbearance in not converting too hastily into peremptory orders; well knowing that, if adopted by the convictions of those concerned, they are far less likely to be evaded than if forced upon them. In extreme cases, however, they do not hesitate to exert their full and large powers. Many new county asylums are now in progress of erection; and the time allowed by the Act is rapidly approaching, when those of the magistracy who have neglected providing for their insane, will be compelled forthwith to do so. Then the disgraceful neglect of the insane, unavoidable under present circumstances stigmatised in the Report, will no longer exist; and we are pleased to find that the Commissioners are fully alive to the necessity of selecting the acute cases for prompt treatment, and providing due accommodation for those of a chronic character, which are now fast overwhelming and nullifying the advantages of present establishments. That these poor creatures will meet with all the attention and alleviation their cases admit of we feel persuaded; as we do that, with such an inspection and control as the Commissioners will be enabled to supply, the humane fears entertained by Dr. Conolly will prove groundless.

Of the improvement which has already taken place the Commissioners. thus speak:

"We are now desirous of satisfying your Lordship, as far as we are able, that, whatever defects may still be found in Lunatic Establishments, the amount of improvement that has taken place of late years, in the comforts and accommodations provided for the Insane, have been great and general. The Public Asylums have been in advance of the rest. The funds by which they are raised and supported, and the causes which influence those who have control over them, necessarily give them a superiority over private establishments. Indeed, we are fully convinced that the Lunatic poor will never be altogether properly provided for, until Public Asylums for the benefit of every county shall have been erected. At the same time we must observe, that there are some Private Asylums in which the pauper-patient is exceedingly well taken care of, and is as judiciously treated as in County Asylums; whilst, on the other hand, there are a few County Asylums which are inferior to many licensed houses.

"The improvement, as we have said, has been general in almost all the existing establishments. It is true that the progress has in no case, perhaps, been altogether regular and undeviating. Defects have frequently been observed; causes for animadversion have occasionally arisen; and every Establishment, however well conducted, has exhibited fluctuations, in respect to the improvement of the patients, easily accounted for, and depending upon various causes in no-wise affecting the character of the Institution. Thus the number of patients occupied varies with the season, a larger proportion than usual finding employment in those times when gardening and field-labour are especially required. The numbers subject to restraint sometimes exceed the average proportion, owing to the influx of new and violent cases, to the excessive heat or severity of the weather, the latter excluding them from exercise or recreation out of doors; whilst the number of recoveries will obviously depend on the number of recent cases received into the Asylum, or the bodily condition of the patients at the time of admission. Notwithstanding these and similar deductions, however, the improvement upon the whole is, in our opinion, undeniable." P. 64.

As the best evidence of the truth of the above statements, the Commissioners contrast the present state of the various Asylums, Hospitals, and Licensed Houses which have been stigmatized in the different Parliamentary and other Reports, with their former condition, which procured for them such unenviable notoriety. At the same time that they gratefully acknowledge the very great services and assistance rendered by that "most zealous, able, and intelligent body of men," the Medical Superintendents of the Public Asylums, and the ready co-operation of several of the medical officers and proprietors of Licensed Houses (the improvements often involving great outlays of money by these last)-yet the Commissioners properly state that to the vigilant inspection of the insane are the originating and maintaining improvements chiefly due, and that, if this is suffered to relax, no security whatever exists against even retrograde move

ments.

A portion of the Report is devoted to a brief account of the Special Investigations the Board has undertaken. Some of these, such as the Haydock Lodge Asylum, the illegal detention of a lunatic by a person calling himself Dr. Quail, and the prosecution of the attendants at Grove Hall, Bow, and the Nottingham Asylum, have been fully and recently noticed in the public prints; but to one or two other cases we may briefly advert. One of these, relating to the arrest and imprisonment of a confirmed lunatic for debt, filled us with astonishment and disgust, ignorant as we were, and we doubt most of our readers are, of the state of the law upon this point. In January last the Commissioners were informed that