the appearance of positive cruelty, and the consequences are the same. The attention of such men requires to be particularly directed to the subject. They should be taught that humanity has not only man, but all animated being for its object-that to follow its dictates is a virtue -to violate them, a crime.

The Society for the "Prevention of Cruelty to Animals," by their meritorious exertions will dissipate such apathy, and introduce reflection to the bosom of the thoughtless. May the present Essay successfully cooperate in promoting so benevolent a design!

CHAPTER II.

THE OBLIGATION OF MAN TOWARDS THE

AND DEPENDENT CREATURES.

INFERIOR

"Of Law no less can be acknowledged than that her seat is the bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world. All things in heaven and earth do her homage; the very least as feeling her care, and the greatest as not exempted from her power."-HOOKER.

"The essay required is one that shall morally illustrate and religiously enforce the obligation of man towards the inferior and dependent creatures.' To comply with this requisition shall be the author's first endeavour. The other topics suggested in the printed proposal shall receive due attention in the sequel.

Man's obligation to practise humanity to "the inferior and dependent creatures" rests on the same basis as all other moral obligations-the will of God.* On what foundation rests the obligation to be just-to speak the

* In affirming that the will of God is the basis of all moral obligation, the author would by no means be understood as excluding the moral sense or conscientiousness,' reason, or Dr. S. Clarke's natural fitness or unfitness, which we acknowledge in certain actions. By these the Divine will is indicated-and he would say with Burlamaqui, "They have each their particular force; but in the actual state of man they are necessarily united. It is sense that gives us our first notice; our reason adds more light; and the will of God, who is rectitude itself, gives it a new degree of certainty; adding withal the weight of his authority. It is on all these foundations united, we ought to raise the edifice of natural law or the system of morality."-BURLAMAQUI's Principles of Natural Law, p. 172.

truth-to fulfil your promise-to pay your debts? The same voice, speaking either by nature or revelation, which says do justly,' says also, 'love mercy.' Humanity being founded on the divine will, has ample provision made for its exercise, in the constitution, and in the wants and necessities of man. Whence or for what end are the benevolent affections, but that we may participate in the good or ill, the pleasures or the pains of all creatures capable of suffering or enjoyment? The instinctive feelings and sympathies of our own breasts prompt us, prior to all reasoning on the subject, to assist those who are afflicted by hunger, thirst, cold, nakedness, accident, or disease. There was no invention in that part of the poet's description of the pious pastor which says,

"His pity gave ere charity began."

Nor are these feelings limited to our own species. Man's wants necessarily bring him into contact with various other species of creatures. Sociability produces friendship, and claims and secures protection for the weaker. Were we to restrain the sweet influences of benevolence, and prevent them, if this were possible, from flowing forth and visiting other beings besides man, we should deprive ourselves of the most delightful enjoyment; and in resisting the stimulants of a benignant nature, frustrate as far as we could the designs of a kind Providence. But where the benevolent affections exist in purity and vigor they are not to be so confined. They seek objects for their gratification not only among mankind, but in the animal creation. Nature asserts her rights in the bosoms even of the selfish, and where philanthropy is wanting, perhaps you may find a passionate fondness for horses, lap-dogs, parrots, canary-birds, or other creatures in some degree capable of reciprocating the kindness of their benefactors. The being in whom there is no sweet sympathy either with man or beast can scarcely be placed within the pale of human nature.

Though it may seem supererogatory to confirm these observations by the testimony of philosophers, since they must find a response in the reader's breast, yet it may not be deemed superfluous to corroborate them by the autho

Bacon says, "There

rity of the greatest, wisest of mankind.' (de Augmentis Scientiarum, lib. viii. cap. 2) is a noble and excellent affection of mercy implanted in the mind of man by nature herself, which extends to the brute animals subjected by divine command to his dominion. This affection is analogous to the mercy of a prince to those whom he has subdued. And this is most certain, the more noble the soul the more does it compassionate. But narrow and degenerate minds think that affairs of this nature pertain not to them; but that which is the nobler portion of the universe is affected by a community of feeling. Wherefore we see that under the old law [the law of Moses] there were precepts not a few, and not merely ceremonial, but the institutes of mercy, as that forbidding to eat flesh with the blood, and the like. Also in the sects of the Essæans and Pythagoreans, they abstained altogether from eating animals; as do some subjects of the Mogul empire at this day. The Turks, too, though cruel and sanguinary by origin and discipline, raise charitable contributions for the support of brutes; and cannot endure that animals should be subject to vexation and torture."*

It would be well if some who call themselves Christians would condescend to take a lesson from the Turks, though they should learn humanity from other teachers, and particularly from the Great Teacher, who said, "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy."

In a country like England, where the duties of morality and religion have such a host of able and eloquent advocates, it seems strange that this duty of humanity to animals has not occupied a much larger portion of their time and advocacy. Is it only now that men are beginning to discover that they have obligations to their fellowcommoners of the earth? Benevolence, pity, mercy, compassion, are all moral virtues taught by reason, inculcated by religion; and surely no one will affirm that they should not be extended to every being susceptible of benefit from their influence. The inferior animals have passions, feelings, sensibilities, as well as the lordly

*BACON'S WORKS, folio, London 1730, vol. i. p. 221 :-" Inditus est, ab ipsa natura, homini, misericordiæ affectus nobilis et excellens, &c."

creature man. Many of them have the conjugal, the paternal, and maternal affections strong and indomitable, even in torture and death. They are grateful to their benefactor, and some of them, as the dog, would venture life and limb in his defence. Their strength, their cunning, their fleetness, their labours, the fruits of their industry, are all for man's service-not for his food and raiment only, but for his luxury and ornament. The furs of quadrupeds, the plumage of birds, the pearly covering of the testaceous families, are the tributes which are paid him. Even the insect tribes work for his gratification-one concocts the sweetest of fluids for his beverage-another spins the most beautiful thread for his clothing.

A consideration of the physical benefits derived from animals should teach man to reciprocate them as far as may be practicable, or suited to creatures so differently constituted-to regard them not with cold selfishness as automata, constructed, like the toys of children, for his pleasure only; but with kindness, as being susceptible of feelings analogous to his own, and at the same time with pious gratitude to the Giver of all, for having ordained him to be the lord of so extensive and varied a creation. It might also be salutary to reflect, what would be the condition of man without those creatures of whose services he is too unconscious, and which he too often repays with tyranny and oppression.

That cruelty to a fellow-creature is a crime no one will dare to dispute that cruelty to the inferior animals is also a crime is equally true, though it may not be so readily admitted, because it is allowed to pass without due cognizance, and seldom has any penalty been exacted for its atrocities. But the passion is the same whether indulged on a man or an insect; and though the life of an insect is not to be estimated as the life of a human being, the sentence of just history has consigned to merited infamy the imperial tyrant who found a pastime in killing flies, not less than Phalaris, who tortured men in his brazen bull. Animals writhing under the merciless strokes of the lash or the club, or the wounds of the goad, or the dissector's knife, have seldom an advocate to prosecute

their wrongs in a court of justice. They cannot utter their complaints in articulate sounds-they can fee no lawyer; and laws have been more frequently enacted for their destruction than preservation. For as to the game laws they were framed, not from any principle of mercy to creatures coming under the denomination of game, but to keep them in store for general butchery by the privileged few. We might be almost led to imagine that some legislatures had passed a decree against many genera and species of animals, similar to that of Rome against Carthage, Delenda est Carthago; or rather like that of Haman against the Jews, " to destroy, to kill, and to cause them to perish." Thus, 'by an ancient statute, viz. 8 ELIZ. c. 15, entitled, An Act for the Preservation of Graine, it was required that the churchwardens should levy an assessment, and pay for the heads of every three old crowes, choughes, or rookes, 1d.; of six young crowes, choughes, or rookes, 1d.; and for every sixe egges of any of them, ld.; for every twelve stares heads, Id.......for the heade of every woodwall, pye, jay, raven, kyte, or king's-fisher, 1d.; bulfynce or other bird that devoureth the blowth of fruit, 1d." Similar rewards are offered for the heads of a variety of birds and beasts of prey. The head of the "hedgehogge" was valued at 2d. and that of the "moldwarpe" at one fourth of that sum. By another ancient statute, 24 HEN. VIII. c. 10, every township was required to keep a crow-net, to destroy rooks, crows, and choughs." Why an "Act for the Preservation of Graine" should spread its meshes for the beautiful kingfisher, it is not easy to discover; and as for the poor bullfinch and its confreres, they might have been spared for their song, though at the expense of a little "blowth of fruit." The ignorance and barbarity evinced by such enactments are equally conspicuous. The crow, the rook, and the chough are warred against for destroying grain, whereas it is notorious that they live on insects, carrion, and worms; beetles are the favourite food of the hedgehog; the mole feeds on worms, and the bullfinch renders great service to the garden and orchard by destroying

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• See Burn's Justice of the Peace, Lond. 1776, vol. 11, p. 283.