upwards of ninety of the sufferers were taken out of the mine; and that, on a particular day afterwards, their funerals took place. He stated that the coffin of what might be called the first of the sufferers began the procession, which increased, before it got to the church, until it amounted to a procession of ninety coffins, with mourners.

Such were some of the calamitous consequences attendant on the working of the coal-mines of Northumberland and Durham previous to the year 1815, the period of the introduction of the miner's safetylamp.

A brief sketch of the origin of this safety-lamp will, it is conceived, be acceptable. The frequency and extent of the dreadful calamities occasioned by explosions in coal-mines, excited the sympathy of several enlightened and humane individuals at Sunderland, in the county of Durham, who in 1813 formed themselves into a society for preventing accidents in coal-mines, and offered premiums for the discovery of new methods of lighting and ventilating them; but, it is said, this philanthropic association did not receive that zealous support from the coal-owners and viewers of those counties which had been anticipated. Dr William Reid Clanny of Bishopwearmouth, one of its principal members, presented to this society a safety-lamp constructed on the principle of insulating the light so as to burn without danger in an atmosphere of inflammable gas or fire-damp, for which he received a large gold medal from the Society of Arts. The Rev. Dr Gray of the same place, another of the leading members of this society, but now deceased, having solicited the attention of Sir Humphry Davy to this important subject, that eminent chemist visited the coal-mines of those counties in 1815, and on his return to London produced two lamps, in which the burners were insulated from the external air. He afterwards discovered the security of wire gauze, which, as is well known, is impervious to flame, and, though surrounded by inflammable air, prevents the communication of any inflammation with the burners.

There are different claims to the honour of having discovered the safety-lamp, about which there has been much angry controversy; but with this subject it is not our intention to interfere. Mr George Stephenson, the celebrated civil engineer, we believe claims to be the first person who discovered that carburetted hydrogen gas would not explode through small apertures. The idea of using wire gauze instead of perforated tin, appears to have originated with Sir Humphry Davy.

The safety-lamp of Sir Humphry Davy, and various others, continue to be used in the collieries of Northumberland and Durham, but not, we believe, with the regularity which is to be desired, the men often removing the gauze to increase the light. Hence explosions still occasionally take place, and are attended with fatal effects more or less extensive. Perhaps the most complete and certain expedient for avoiding accidents would be to establish air-tubes leading from all parts of the mine to a common tube at the pit's mouth, where it should be made to feed a fire: the draught occasioned by the fire would serve to clear the mine of all noxious vapour, and make the occasionally careless use of the safety-lamp of little consequence.

"CANST THOU NOT MINISTER TO A MIND DISEASED?" Too little attention has been paid to the physical treatment of mental affections. I allude more particularly to those apparently trivial and unimportant deviations from a healthy condition of the mental and moral feelings. Any unusual depression of the spirits-whims and fancies -departures from accustomed modes of thinking, are all indications of mental disease, which, if not attended to, often produce serious consequences. The disposition to commit suicide is, in nine cases out of ten, preceded by lowness of spirits, a mental lethargy, a desire to avoid society and observation, a craving after solitude. If these mental conditions were attended to, much evil might be prevented. A timely-administered dose of medicine has often dissipated the suicide's murderous intention. It is recorded of Voltaire, that he had agreed with an Englishman, with whom he had been conversing on the various ills of life, to commit suicide on the following morning. When the time arrived, Voltaire declared that he had changed his mind-he had subjected himself to a course of purgation, and the desire to kill himself had vanished. The abstraction of blood has often prevented the commission of crime. Damien persisted to the last in declaring, that had he been bled, as he earnestly expressed a wish to be, he never would have attempted to assassinate the French king. The desire to commit suicide arises very frequently from intestinal irritation acting upon the brain. How important it is to watch the first dawnings of a feeling productive of so much injury to society! Good and evil dispositions are more connected with the conditions of our bodily organs than physicians or metaphysicians are willing to admit.—Mr F. Winslow's Paper on Suicide.

TREATMENT OF HORSES ON A JOURNEY.

Various opinions exist as to the best division of the stages which a horse should be ridden or driven when performing even a long journey. This must in some degree be regulated by his condition. If he is to perform a journey of a hundred and fifty miles, and has three days to do it in, I should divide the distances into twenty-five miles each, or as near as the accommodation of the road would permit, starting, especially in the summer time, early in the morning, and performing the first twenty-five miles before breakfast. This enables you to have your horse well dressed, and to afford him three or four hours' rest; and if he will eat two quarterns of oats, and a quartern of beans (which should

be divided into two feeds), he will not take much harm. A moderate quantity of water must be given; at the same time it must be observed that too much will cause most horses to scour, and likewise to sweet more profusely; therefore the less he has in reason, the better, till his day's work is completed, when he should have as much as he is inclined to take. Gruel is an excellent thing, but it is not readily procured, properly made, on the road; it should invariably be boiled, and I prefer it made with wheat flour, as it remains longer on the stomach, and is less relaxing than when made with oatmeal. The usual method of preparing what they call gruel at inns is to mix oatmeal with warm water, in which state it is decidedly bad; its emollient quality is produced by boiling, and if I cannot procure it in that state, I prefer water.-Old Sporting Magazine for October.

THE WILDERNESS.
[BY J. NEVAY.]

The homeless wilderness!

How sweet, how beautiful, and O! how mild
Is nature in ber summer dress
To me, thus wandering far alone!
Now be my thoughts as, when a little child,
I deemed that God's eternal throne
Was in the sun-so glorious, bright-
To bless the earth with loveliness and light.
Here breathes the peace I seek!

This heathy wild's a paradise to him

Who, musing, hears the voiceless speak--
Hears the calm eloquence of flowers,

And drinks sweet wisdom from their balmy hymn,
That charms, with beauty's chastest powers,
The vagrant winds their lips to kiss,
And tells that Nature's innocence is bliss.
Nor strife nor hatred here,

Nor envy, at a neighbour's good to writhe;
Each flower is to its sister dear-—

This hates not that of fairer bloom,
And all are loved by pilgrim bee so blithe;
The prickly gorse, and gentler broom,
In peace dispread their gold together,
Nor scorn the lowlier blooming thyme and heather.
So live the good, and love-

For there is virtue yet upon the earth,

And by her seraph hand are wove
The feelings of ingenuous hearts

In happy friendship, sympathy, and mirth;
And kindly each to each imparts
The sunny light that heaven bestows,
And summer pleasure in each bosom glows.
The shafts of enmity

Can never wound my feelings, musing here!
In every little flower I see,

There breathes a balm, a holy charm;
And the glad song of every bird I hear

Tells me that envy cannot harm,
And sweetly teaches to forgive my foes-
My simple song forgives them as it flows.
But I could love the foe

Whose censure stern, and praise, alike are just;
Whose lip can curl, whose soul can glow,
As faults appear, or beauties shine;
Who scorns to give the undeserved thrust-
Scans every word of every line,

As one in whom there is no ruth,
While native candour still decides with truth.
Yet why obtrude such theme,
Where nature spreads around her sacred page?
To read aright, my aim supreme,
And cultivate each germ of thought
That in me lives; and win the holy pledge
Which I, since boyhood gay, have sought,
To be among the laurell'd blest, above
Yon sun rejoicing high-a home of love.
Thou, who all sweetness art,

And pure as sweet, thou sunborn summer wreath,
O, be the feelings of my heart,
Like thee, in moral beauty wove;
And as we muse, 'mid winter's gloom of death,
Of thy gay summer charms in love,
So, when beneath the sod I'm laid along,
Remembered be the votary of song.
-Scotsman, Feb. 1840.

HUMBLE AND UNNOTICED VIRTUE.
O my son !

The ostentatious Virtues which still press
For notice and for praise; the brilliant deeds
Which live but in the eye of observation-
These have their meed at once; but there's a joy
To the fond votaries of fame unknown,
To hear the still small voice of conscience speak
Its whispering plaudit to the silent soul.
Heaven notes the sigh afflicted goodness heaves,
Hears the low plaint by human car unheard.
And, from the cheek of patient Sorrow, wipes
The tear, by mortal eye unseen, or scorned.
-Mrs More's Works.

TREASURY WRITERS AND OFFICIALS.

It is a pretty general opinion with the public, that the selves contributors to the newspapers. This, however, scribes of the Treasury and of the Foreign Office are themis rarely the case. The mode of communication between morning, the editor, the sub-editor, or sub-sub-for in the Treasury and its journal* used to be this :---Every respectable newspapers the assistant editor has also an aide-went to the Treasury and the Foreign Office to learn if there were any news, and to receive instructions as to the tone which the editor was to assume. If the editor in person paid this visit, he was usually received at the Treasury by what is called the Patronage-Secretary, who is the gentleman charged with the management of the secret machinery of the government, and the drilling of the ministerial members of the House of Commons, in which latter office he is assisted by the official whipper-in. This personage was the medium of communication between the cabinet and the editors of the newspapers which were in their interest, for notwithstanding the importance attached by some members of the cabinet to the support of newspapers, they rarely condescended to give audience to the editors. This affectation of su

* This kind of Treasury connection is said no longer to exist.

periority is almost exclusively confined to the English character. In France the editors of government newspapers are in direct communication with the ministers, and such is the case even in Germany and Russia, where literary men hold a higher rank than in England, although the pecuniary advantages which they possess may not be so great. At the English Foreign Office the editor had the high honour of being admitted to the presence of no less a person than the Under-Secretary of State; but if the sub-editor, or his sub, attended, he was generally turned over to the chief clerk, who, whilst the visitor waited, would communicate with his superior. If an article highly in favour of the government, and calculated, by the tact with which it was written, to serve their cause, appeared in a semi-official paper, it did not follow that the great men thought it worth while to communicate to the writer the expression of their satisfaction, although this was sometimes done; but if, on the contrary, by neglecting to pay the daily visit, in order to see which way the vane pointed, or from any other cause, the editor should have written some article, or paragraph of an article, which created displeasure, he was summoned to the presence of the Secretary of the Treasury, or of the Under-Secretary of the Foreign Office, as the case might be, and reminded, in polite but very positive terms, that he was not a free agent; and that, if the indiscretion were to be repeated, the government would feel it necessary to take some means of letting the public know that they had no direct connection with his journal. Some curious scenes have resulted from this temporary exercise of free agency. I remember an editor having been once sent for by an Under-Secretary of State of the Foreign Department, who, in his usual polite but truly official manner, expressed, in the name of his superior, the deep regret which was felt at the tone which he had for several days assumed; and informed him, that if the same line of conduct were to be persisted in, it would become necessary to inform the different embassies that the minister disowned it. "Your articles," said the Under-Secretary, "have already led to remonstrances from two of the ambassadors; and his lordship in vain replied, that as there is not, strictly speaking, an official paper in England, he can only advise, not control, the editors of those papers by which the government is generally supported. The ambassadors, who cannot conceive that papers affecting to advocate the cause of ministers can contain any article which has not been previously submitted for approbation, turn a deaf ear to all my lord's statements. You will see, therefore, how important it is to be careful in these matters; and understand, that if there be a repetition of such conduct on your part, the government must withdraw its patronage from your paper." Now, it had so occurred, that the very articles complained of by the Foreign Secretary had given great satisfaction to the Premier; and, only on the preceding day, the editor had received from the Secretary of the Treasury a letter, in which he expressed, by desire of that noble lord, the pleasure which they had afforded. On producing this important document, and placing it in the hands of the Under-Secretary, he could only express his astonishment, and request, as a particular favour, that the editor would keep secret the difference of opinion which appeared to exist between the Premier and the Secretary of State, on a question of such importance as the foreign policy of the British cabinet.-A Newspaper Editor's Reminisences, in Fraser's Magazine.

BORROWING ON ALL HANDS.

In Michigan there is little ceremony used in seeking the loan of each other's goods-" Mother wants your sifter; and she says she guesses you can let her have some sugar and tea, 'cause you've got plenty." This excellent reason, "'cause you've got plenty," is conclusive as to sharing with your neighbours. Whoever comes into Michigan with nothing, will be sure to better his condition; but woe to him that brings with him any thing like an appearance of abundance, whether of money or mere household conveniences! To have them, and not be willing to share them in some sort with the whole community, is an unpardonable crime. You must lend your best horse to qui que ce soit, to go ten miles over hill and marsh, in the darkest night, for a doctor; or your team to travel twenty after a "gal;" your wheelbarrows, your shovels, your utensils of all sorts, belong not to yourselves, but to the public, who do not think it necessary even to ask a loan, but take it for granted. The two saddles and bridles of Montacute spend most of their time travelling from house to house a-manback; and I have actually known a stray martingale to be traced to four dwellings two miles apart, having been lent from one to another, without a word to the original proprietor, who sat waiting, not very patiently, to commence a journey. But the cream of the joke lies in the manner of the thing. It is so straightforward and honest-none of your hypocritical when he finds that you possess any thing which would civility and servile gratitude. Your true republican, contribute to his convenience, walks in with "Are you the thing he needs. "Yes, I shall probably want them." going to use your horses to-day?" if horses happen to be "Oh! well, if you want them, I was thinking to get 'em to go up north a piece." Or, perhaps, the desired article comes within the female department-" Mother wants to get some butter; that 'ere butter you bought of Miss Barton this mornin'." And away goes your golden store, to be repaid perhaps with some cheesy, greasy stuff, brought in a dirty pail, with "Here's your butter!" A girl came in to borrow a "wash-dish," "because we've got company." Presently she came back-" Mother says you've forgot to send a towel." "The pen and ink, and a sheet o' paper and a wafer," is no unusual request; and when the pen is returned, you are generally informed that you sent "an awful bad pen."-Mrs Clavers's Western Life in America.

*

*

EDINBURGH: Printed and published by W. and R. CHAMBERS, 19, Waterloo Place.-Agents, W. S. ORR, London; W. CURRY Jun. & Co. Dublin; J. MACLEOD, Glasgow; sold by all booksellers.

NUMBER 426.

THE DEFENSIVE.

DID it ever occur to any of our readers to consider how much of the labour, wealth, and possibilities of enjoyment, of the social world, is expended and sacrificed merely for the sake of defence against evils which do not necessarily exist? A middle-aged Englishman walks into the dockyards at Portsmouth, with his wife on one arm and his daughter on the other, and talks with pride, right and left, of the vast naval power of his native country. We suspect he does not reflect that all this mighty mechanism, and all these tremendous munitions, exist on account of absolute mischiefs to which it is distressing to think that we are exposed, namely, rapacity, self-love, and pure unreasonableness on the part of other nations-re, of course, being always rational and innocent belligerents. The Third Dragoons arrive in Leeds, there to take up their quarters for the winter; and all the ladies immediately begin to think what delightful balls they shall have, and for some time nothing is talked of but what a handsome set of officers, what an elegant man is Captain Goring, what a nice young fellow Cornet Jackson, and how extremely pretty the jackets are, and how beautiful the horses! Even the poor populace, one of whose foibles is a liking for the army, look with admiration on the gay and clanging march of the troops, and, as they parade along the streets, follow reverently and delightedly in their train, almost supposing that they are themselves a part of the corps. The ladies and the populace never once consider for a moment that Captain Goring and Cornet Jackson, and all the rest, even to the cymbals and kettledrums, exist for the purpose of defending the one party against some possible lawlessness in the other, and that there would be no balls and no gay parades, if it were not that those very poor fellows who follow the regiment so lovingly, are apt occasionally to become a little troublesome. It is equally worthy of remark, that, when a gentleman takes a stranger or country cousin to see the sights of the city in which he dwells, he is quite as likely to speak with pride of the County Jail, if it is a new and handsome one, as of the Royal Exchange or the last new club-house, never once considering that this large and superb edifice is a thing which only exists because the district or city is pestered with criminals, against whom it is necessary that society should be defended. So complete is this delusion, that, when a gentleman was not long ago showing a large prison to another who was connected with a distant county, the latter remarking that it seemed to him small, and having inquired how many offenders were generally brought forward there at a sessions, to which the an"generally about twenty," "Oh," said the stranger with an air of contempt, "that is a small affair indeed we in S-shire have never less than two hundred!" Ordinary observers see only the fine ships, the well-dressed, well-drilled corps, the huge castellated building. They would require to look beneath the surface, to become aware that these things are only a subtraction from the productive industry of the country, and that Captain Goring and his friend the Cornet might have been left at liberty to act in some capacity which would have increased the general store, and the money expended on the ships and prisons been reserved for some really useful end, were it not for the irregular impulses which govern the human breast, and against which defensive measures are necessary.

swer was

It is quite humiliating, indeed, to think how many of the greatest things in the world exist only through this same necessity. What is the medical profession (meaning the men) but a great defensive band against the evils we bring on ourselves by breaches of nature's laws? What is the use of lawyers but to defend

us against each other? The administration of public affairs is in great part only defensive. One-half the things which men toast with enthusiasm after public dinners, are only guards against the evils which beset them. How broad a feature is the defensive in ordinary domestic matters! Not a fair park, or goodly forest, is to be seen throughout the country, but what is surrounded by lofty walls, necessary for defending it. Not even a field, or paddock, not so much as a cottage garden, is without its angry hedge or surly wall, to protect it from dreaded aggression. Locks, bars, shutters, stancheons, how universal are they in our civilised land, showing that every where it is vain to have any thing without taking the means of defending it! Tailors arrange and fashion pockets with a view to defend their contents, and even breast-pins are thought now-a-days to be the better for having a little anchor and chain cable to make sure that rogues shall not furtively take possession of them.

Painfully conspicuous as are all these symptoms of the defensive, they are more endurable than those moral habits in which the same guardedness is called into force. In social existence, the necessity of defensive measures affects us to an immense extent, and human happiness is greatly diminished by it. When a few people are thrown together casually in travelling, they dare not converse freely with each other. They do not know each other, and though there may be a likelihood that all are respectable, still they cannot be sure, and therefore it is necessary to act on the defensive. Supposing one or two do break the ice, and find each other agreeable, they cannot encourage intimacy, for each fears the other may prove to be a person whom it would not be creditable to acknowledge as a friend. One may remit the defensive as far as chat for the hour is concerned, but not for a moment's intercourse after the conclusion of the journey. The fears which operate thus are of various kinds. The person of a certain grade in society fears he may be drawn into a disagreeable acquaintance with an inferior. The honest citizen is apprehensive that his pleasant neighbour may prove to be a rogue, whom the police are waiting for at the next stage. A mamma and her daughter dread giving the slightest encouragement to Mr Unsuitable. Every one has his or her peculiar bugbear, whom he or she fears this individual may prove to be. In fact, all mankind are Improper Persons to some of their fellow-creatures, however different may be the kinds and degrees of impropriety, and however excellent each may be in many respects. The unavoidable result is, that a remark from one's neighbour as to the fineness of the morning, or the pleasantness of the villas seen on the banks of the canal, or the wonderful swiftness of locomotive carriages, becomes an excessively alarming thing. The proposition may be assented to, but with a "humph!" or a toss of the head, or a chilling look, so as to make it clear that the assent is strictly limited to the proposition, and does not by any means signify that one thinks the proposer entitled to take one's arm in walking into the next town. The necessity for this reserve may be undoubted; but it is surely much to be lamented, for travelling would be generally more cheerful if the travellers could allow themselves to follow the dictates of their nature in associating harmoniously together, and being all "hail, brother, well met!"

A free-born Englishman is apt to be astonished at the military police of France, and the system of passports which prevails there and in other parts of the continent, arguing a necessity for the defensive such as it gives him pain even to think of. But let him look to the customs of his own country, and consider what would be the condition of a man who should take up

PRICE THREE HALFPENCE.

his residence in a British city without any letters of introduction. Would such a man find a single human being to whom he could open his mouth? Would the gentler sex's gentlest specimen once for a moment allow herself to look at him? Would he obtain admission to a single house, besides the inns, or would he be allowed to attend a single ball? No such a man would find himself a complete Pariah. Truly Byron's idea as to the solitude to be experienced in cities, And all this is because would be realised in his case. there are so many knaves and pretenders of all kinds in England, that the true gentleman requires to be attested by competent judges and witnesses: it is, in short, part of the defensive system which swindling and imposture render necessary among honest people. Benevolence laments the necessity, and we can readily see that, if the case were otherwise, the honest part of the world would both look more amiable and be more happy. But, nevertheless, the necessity is undoubted. Sometimes kind-natured persons are found to dispense with the usual certificates; but it often happens that they have occasion to regret their simplicity.

Even in society where all have been so far recommended to each other, it is still found necessary to act a good deal on the defensive. Many persons, quite respectable in station and general conduct, are of notedly disagreeable manners or unpleasant temper: these it is necessary to keep at a distance. Some are heedlessly familiar, and wanting in deference and respect where it is due: these it is desirable to chill. Some are recklessly extravagant in their style of life, and indulge in a great deal of not very select company: the advances of such persons it may be deemed prudent to check. A lady may think her circle of friends already as large as she ought to have, and she must therefore forbid herself to encourage the approaches of new acquaintance. For a thousand various and not easily described reasons, every person almost every day finds it necessary to act on the defensive against his fellow-creatures, not from any disrespect to them, possibly, but simply from a regard which he feels himself at liberty to entertain for his own tastes, likings, and convenience. Still the fact helps to show to what a vast extent this principle operates in the social world, and how vain, in the mean time, are all those sentimental preachments which enjoin men (without taking other things into view) to love each other as brothers.

Admitting the existence of this principle, and its results in detracting from human happiness, we are not bound to suppose that there is any particular amount of the defensive which must necessarily exist in the mass of the world, or be practised by individuals. The amount of the defensive called for must be in proportion to the evils which give occasion for it. The wooden walls of Old England, the Third Dragoon Guards, the castellated county jails, are they to be needed for ever? Let this question be answered by what remains of Raby and Conway Castles, by Lochmaben and Dunnottar, and all the other "towers along the steep" now no longer in strength. Once these fortresses were needed by our nobles and county gentlemen as a means of defending themselves from each other; but now a locked door in an ordinary house serves all the purpose. So may the time arrive when the bristling of a Russian fleet in the Black Sea will not set hammers a-going at Portsmouth; when the swart artisans of Sheffield and Birmingham will be on so right a footing that Captain Goring's occupation will be gone; and when the amount of irregular and untrained impulse in the country will be so small, that the jail, in place of being the biggest building in all our towns, will become the smallest. The prospect of such improvement may be considered visionary;

arrangement of stone and wood in building, the projection of shadows, perspective both with regard to the apparent form and tints of objects, the formation of maps and plans, and the operations of surveying, and also the drawing of machinery simple and compound; the construction of roads, bridges, canals, and ports, the plans of mining operations, and the ordinary processes of building; while in fortification the general principles of the method were to be taught, in addition to the construction of works and the operations of attack and defence." In physics, the course was divided into what are called general physics, and chemistry with its application to all the useful arts. Oral lectures, and practical demonstrations, engaged alternately the attention of the students, and occupied about twelve hours of their time each day. "Chefs de brigade," or monitors, were selected from the more advanced pupils, and placed each over a division of the school, in order to guide and privately instruct those under their charge.

but so would it have been held visionary in the six- | last branches of instruction included "the cutting and teenth century, if any one residing on the border had suggested that the time might come when gentlemen would not live in towers surrounded by barmkin walls. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that doing away with the defensive on these great points must leave a vast amount of capital and labour free to be expended on objects producing a return of useful commodities to human beings, not to speak of the lessening of positive misery and pain to mortals which must follow from the same cause. Shall we ever be able to dispense in like manner with the defensive measures which are at present generally deemed requisite against imposture, aggression, injury, and unpleasant communications? For analogous reasons, we would be hopeful on this point also. People going home at night through the streets of London are not now in danger of being assaulted by the gentlemen styled Mohocks. Here the defensive has been remitted on a great point. May it not also be remitted on other points, when the causes for it shall in like manner have become obsolete, and out of date? To make these causes obsolete, is an object in which every generous nature, we should think, must be interested, for to such natures the defensive must always be disagreeable, if not indeed on many occasions positively impracticable. Let the prospect of getting quit of this harassing necessity serve, we would say, as a stimulus to every philanthropic mind, to exert itself for the improvement of human character,

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF PARIS.

Such was the original plan of this Parisian School, on which the title of Polytechnic was bestowed in the second year of its existence. The establishment had to struggle with many difficulties in its infancy. The students were not exempted from serving in the ranks of the national guard, and in this character they were called out in 1795 to protect the government against the factions by which it was then menaced. Great confusion was thus introduced into the establishment, and, what was worse, the spirit and boldness evinced by the students rendered them an object of dread to the parties then in power. The latter complained of the expense attending the maintenance of the school, curtailed the range of instruction in various ways, and in fact endeavoured to crush it altogether. But the enthusiasm and energy of the professors, who, as a

eggs;" but he afterwards consented to their enrol ment as a corps of artillery, and the little band behaved with distinguished gallantry in the battle fought under the walls of Paris in 1814. On a former occa sion, also, when Bonaparte projected the invasion of Britain, the students had besought permission to take a share in the "great action," and offered to construct a gun-boat with their own hands, and at their ow expense. The offer was accepted, and immediately, says a French writer, " the school became a workshop the library was filled with models, and other places with blacksmiths and sail-makers." The boat was soon made, and actually launched under the command of a student of the establishment. It never was put to its original purpose; but its history is interestin as exhibiting the practical character of the training to which its builders had been subjected.

There is another feature in the progressive career or annals of this school which ought not to be ever looked. This was the publication of successive treatises, of an admirable kind, by its various professors, and in some instances, by its pupils. In one or other, er both, of these characters, Biot, Arago, Poisson, GayLussac, Petit, Hauy, Lacroix, and many other philsophers of European celebrity, became connected with the school, and furthered its interests by their teaching and their writings. A treatise on physics by Hair, one on mechanics by Poisson, one on chemistry by The nard and Fourcroy, and one on the theory of functions by Lagrange, may be mentioned merely as specimens of the able works which were produced originally for the use of the Polytechnic School, though the world saw their value too clearly to permit their usefulness to rest there. Pursuing the history of the school afte the fall of Bonaparte, we find that it was an object of deep dislike to the restored Bourbons. It is curious enough, that the Directory accused the students of incivism or aristocratic tendencies; that Bonaparte charged them with republicanism; and that the Bourbons blamed them for imperialism. M. Liadieres, who was a pupil of the school, and who gives a sketch of its history in the Book of the Hundred and One, de clares that these various charges all originated in the fact that the Polytechnic students hated and opposed

have been surprised at the important part which these

scholars are said to have played, on many occasions, tion, had the effect of counteracting the jealous hoson the stage of public affairs. But the truth is, that tility of the Directory. When Bonaparte came into power, the Polytechnic School rose into a much more this school and its pupils are of a very uncommon order, and must not be judged of by a comparison had succeeded in procuring the expulsion of four advantageous position, though not until its enemies with our own academies for the young. The object of pupils, on a charge of incirism. After his Italian camthe Polytechnic School of Paris is to furnish a con-paigns, Bonaparte visited the school frequently in tinual supply of men capable of directing all the civil and military undertakings of the nation for the management of which science is necessary. The institution had its origin in the stormy times of the first revolution. Monge, one of the best mathematicians of his age, was the original proposer of it, and in 1794 he succeeded in getting his views carried into effect, with the aid of Lamblardie, then Director of Roads and Bridges, of Carnot, and of Foureroy. To the establishment the name of the "Central School of Public Works" was originally given, and it was opened on the 30th of November 1794, under the di

rectorship of Lamblardie.

When the great names of Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, Berthollet, Fourcroy, Chaptal, Guyton de Morveau, Vauquelin, Fourier, and Prouy, are mentioned as those of the original or early professors, it will be admitted, that as regarded the matter of teaching, this new school commenced with the most brilliant prospects. Three hundred and forty-nine students were

in the first instance enrolled, and these were of all ages, from twelve to twenty-five years, though the majority ranged between sixteen and eighteen. The plan of choosing them was as follows. In each of the twenty-two largest towns of France, an examinator was named, whose duty it was to examine and decide on the qualifications of the young candidates. These qualifications, generally speaking, were previous good conduct, and a pretty extensive knowledge of the elements of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. The government gave to the students, thus selected, a salary considered sufficient for the supply of their ordinary wants, and they were lodged or boarded with families selected for the purpose among the residents of the city of Paris. No fees, of course, were exacted, the whole being at the public expense.

The course of instruction established had chiefly in view the training of the pupils to every species of engineering, civil and military. "In mathematics the students were supposed to know already the elements of geometry and algebra. Their attention was therefore turned immediately to analysis and descriptive geometry. The former was principally confined to the elements, first, of geometry of three dimensions; second, mechanics and hydrostatics; third, the effects of machinery. The latter was applied to the arts of design, architecture, and fortification." These three

person, and listened to the instructions delivered. When he went to Egypt, he took with him thirtynine of the more distinguished students, and of these, seventeen were made members of his celebrated Egyptian Commission. This attention, on the part of a man so influential, drew the general favour of the public upon the Polytechnic School; and its pupils, besides, were beginning to exhibit such occasional proofs of talent as confirmed the impression. One young lad, for example, of the age of eighteen, gave in a paper to Lagrange, containing some suggested improvements on the profoundest parts of that great mathematician's works, which suggestions he avowed his intention to adopt." The young man was Poisson,

now one of the first of living analysts. This and other similar circumstances became readily known to the public, and indeed to all Europe, by means of the Polytechnic Journal, a periodical instituted nearly at through succeeding years. It described the progressive the commencement of the school, and continued operations of the establishment, and proved altogether a valuable record of scientific knowledge.

As Napoleon's ambition widened in its circuit, and Polytechnic School supplied his armies with engineers his war-system grew more and more gigantic, the and artillery officers of the ablest description. Not only was this the case, but he also, in the most unjustifiable manner, included the students within the range of his terrible conscription, and ninety of them were pressed as private soldiers. Notwithstanding, the school as a nursery of practical science, that in 1805 emperor was so deeply sensible of the value of the he made important changes on its constitution, with the view of increasing its future efficiency. He decreed that the students should all live together, and gave them the College of Navarre for a school and dwelling. He decreed that each student should pay a certain yearly sum towards his maintenance, with the exception of a few bursars. Finally, he established in the school a strict military discipline, and gave it the the institution as well fitted as possible for the advancecharacter nearly of a fortress. Having thus rendered ment of his own system, he drew from it all the talent which it developed, for the supply of the engineering department of his armies. So certain, indeed, was the display of talent to bring a commission upon its obliged to conceal their knowledge. When France owner, that all who did not choose a military life were was threatened, however, by the allies, no Polytechnic student showed an aversion to war. They made an offer to Napoleon to fight in a body in his ranks. He declined their offer at the time, saying, “ I am not so far reduced as to kill the hen that lays me golden

66

the Quarterly Journal of Education. *See an article on the Polytechnic School in No. I. vol. i. of

or regal. However this may be, it is certain that the Bourbons attempted to extinguish the establishment. Taking advantage, in April 1816, of a riotous demorstration on the part of the pupils, Louis XVIII. disit in September of the same year. The military feasolved the school by a royal ordonnance. But he found it necessary, or at least prudent, to re-establish and remained so till 1822, when it was held proper, tures of the institution, however, were then abolished, for the sake of restoring more perfect discipline, to revert to the garrison-like organisation of Napoleor. In the same state it has remained up to this hour, with unimportant changes. The war-minister has the ostensible direction of the whole. A governor and s sub-governor are the actual managing superiors, and under them are chefs des études and chefs de brigade, these being perfected and advanced pupils, who take charge of the rest by divisions. The pupils are still selected by district examinations, which are strict than formerly. Each pupil pays forty pounds school, but never more than three. There are twentysterling a-year, and remains usually two years in the four royal bursaries for poorer candidates. All wear a uniform, and, as has been said, are kept under the usual forms of military discipline.

more

It

ing to the ablest lecturers, aided in their progress Selected from the ablest youth of France, listenthe students of the Polytechnic School are distinby the best books, and having their attention seldom distracted from their studies by extraneous causes, guished for the proficiency which they attain. may be interesting to point out the proportions in under their notice by the professors. In 1830, accordwhich the various branches of science are brought ing to a paper in the Educational Journal already alluded to, the number of hours devoted to each department of science, in the first and second year's

courses, stood as follows:

Physics, Chemistry,

Hours

15

34 Mechanics,

75

18 Geodesy,

28

Machines,

22

108 Political Arithmetic,

Physics,

42

24 Chemistry,

54

51 Architecture,

51

54 History, Belles Lettres, &c. 34

History, Belles Lettres, &c. 34 These are merely the hours, it is to be observed, in cating information. The student is allowed a portion which the lecturers are actually engaged in communiof time after each lecture for meditation or application, and in this he is assisted by others if he requires it; so that the students are perpetually occupied, and have all the tutorial advantages which the best univerable portion of the allotted amount of study, and the sities afford. It is a wise regulation, that a considerdegree of application, should be voluntary, or at the option, to a certain extent, of each individual.

We have now given a pretty comprehensive view of the plan and character of the Polytechnic School of Paris. It is an institution of great value in the eyes of the nation, and justly so, seeing that it represents, in a very perfect degree, the rising talent and spirit of the country. As regards their public appear