guese carried it to India, and established it at Goa; and in the accompanying engraving a view is given of the procession of the members of this tribunal, from the church of St. Augustine in this city. It is considered the finest specimen of European architecture in any part of India.

In the eighteenth century, the power of the inquisition in Portugal was restrained by the ordinance which commanded that the accuser of the court should furnish the accused with the heads of the accusation and the names of the witnesses, that the accused should be allowed to have the aid of counsel, and that no sentence of the inquisition should be executed until confirmed by the royal council. The late king abolished the inquisition, not only in Portugal, but also in Brazil and the East Indies, and caused all its records at Goa to be burnt. The inquisition restored in Rome by Pius VII. has jurisdiction only over the clergy, and is not therefore dangerous to those who are not catholics. In 1826 it condemned to death Caschiur, a pupil of the propaganda, who was appointed patriarch of Memphis, but not accepted by the viceroy of Egypt. The pope changed the punishment into imprisonment for life, and the nature of his crime is unknown.

CHAPTER XI.-ITALY.

THIS fertile portion of Europe was once the seat of universal empire, but since the overthrow of the Roman power it has never formed an independent whole. The pride of its inhabitants and the admiration of foreigners, on account of its delicious climate and former celebrity, is a narrow peninsula, extending from the Alps into the Mediterranean sea, which, on the east side of Italy, is called the Adriatic, on the west the Tuscan sea. The Apennines, rising near the maritime Alps, are the principal chain of mountains, and stretch through the country, dividing Lombardy from the Genoese territories and Tuscany, and Tuscany from Romagna, intersecting the States of the Church, and running through the kingdom of Naples to the straits of Messina.

Upper Italy is remarkably well watered. The Po, which receives a great number of rivers from the large lakes at the foot of the Alps (Lago Maggiore, di Lugano, di Como, d'Iseo, and di Garda), and the Adige, are the principal rivers. They both rise in the Alps, and flow into the Adriatic sea. In Middle Italy are the Arno and the Tiber, which rise in the Apennines, and flow into the Tuscan sea. In Lower Italy, or Naples, there are no large rivers, on account of the shortness of the courses of the streams from the mountains to the sea: the Garigliano is the principal. The climate is warm without excessive heat, and generally salubrious. The winter, even in Upper Italy, is very mild, and in Naples snow is seldom seen. The abundance and excellence of the productions of the soil correspond with the beauty of the climate. In many places, both of the north and south, there are two, and even three, crops a year.

The volcanic character of the coasts of Lower Italy is particularly remarkable in a geological point of view, especially in the region of Puzzuoli and Vesuvius. The neighboring islands of the Mediterranean are distinguished by the same peculiarity. The national character of the Italians, naturally cheerful, but always marked by strong passions, has been rendered by continued oppression dissembling and selfish. The Italian, moreover, possesses a certain acuteness and versatility, as well as a love of money, which stamp him for a merchant. In the middle ages, Venice, Genoa, Florence, and Pisa, were the chief marts of the European commerce with the East Indies; and Italians (then called Lombards, without distinction, in Germany, France, and England) were scattered all over Europe for the purposes of trade. The discov. ery of a passage by sea deprived them of the Indian trade, and the prosperity of those republics declined. The Italian, restricted almost solely to traffic in the productions of his own country, has nevertheless always remained an active merchant.

Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of Italy, this country was thickly inhabited, and for the most part by civilized nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt the Gauls. Further south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Samnites, and Latins, endeavored to find safety by forming confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Græcia. The story of the subjection of these nations to the Roman ambition belongs to the history of Rome.

Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all the states situated in the basin of the Po; the second extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples, which formed the third. At present it is divided into the following independent states, which are not connected with each other by any political tie: 1, the kingdom of Sardinia; 2, Lombardy, or Austrian Italy (including Milan and Venice); 3, the duchy of Parma; 4, the duchy of Modena (including Massa); 5, the grandduchy of Tuscany; 6, the duchy of Lucca; 7, the republic of San Marino; 8, the papal dominions; 9, the kingdom of Naples or the Two Sicilies.

Italia did not become the general name of this country until the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Ausonia, Saturnia, and Enotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at first acquainted. The name Italia was at first.

merely a partial name for the southern extremity, until it was gradually extended to the whole country.

Italy depends almost solely on its agriculture for subsistence; the sources from which it formerly drew its support, the arts, manufactures, and commerce, being almost dried up. Commerce with foreign countries, which, in Naples especially, is altogether stagnant, is for the most part, in the hands of foreigners, and, in a great measure, dependent on the British; thence the universal want of specie, the finan cial embarrassments of the governments, and the loans negotiated with Rothschild. Italy no longer lives, as formerly, on her cities, but on her soil. And even this source of prosperity maintains but a feeble existence, while taxes and tariffs impede the exportation of the staple production to foreign countries, or bands of banditti, and the want of good roads, obstruct internal intercourse, as in Sicily and Calabria. The natural advantages of Italy entitle her to the highest rank in agriculture, commerce, and the arts; but all branches of industry groan under political oppression. The government and people look on each other with jealousy and hate, and the ecclesiastical establishment poisons the springs of national activity. A political excitement is continually kept up by means of secret societies, which are found, also, in Spain and Switzerland, under different appellations. The celebrated count La Maistre was, for a long time, in Piedmont, the head of these malcontents who sought to accomplish desperate, ambitious plans, while apparently zealous in the cause of religion or morality. Even the Calderari, in Naples, whose head was the ex-minister of the police, Prince Canosa, have become one with the Sanfedists, who were connected with the gouvernemente occulte (as it was denominated) of France. These ultras hate even Austria, because it seems to act with too great moderation. The grand-duke of Tuscany is a man of lenient principles, and in that country, not a single Tuscan has been brought to account for political transgressions.

The present political divisions of Italy, and the amount of population in 1827, are given in the accompanying table. We have selected the population of that period, as it is the latest which has the stamp of authenticity.

The boundaries of the Italian language can not be given with precision. In the north, toward Switzerland, Tyrol, and the other neighboring countries, the valleys in which German, Italian, and dialects of the ancient Roman language, are spoken,

they alternate with each other. Even the sea is not a definite limit. On account of the early extension of the Italians over the islands of the Mediterranean, including those of Greece and the coasts of the Grecian mainland, it is not easy to determine where the last Italian sound is heard. It is spoken, more or less corrupted, in all the ports of the Mediterranean, Christian and Turkish. Of late, however, the Italian language has lost ground on many islands, as, for instance, on the Ionian islands. The origin of this beautiful and most harmonious tongue, is also lost in obscurity. The general opinion, that the Italian originated from a mixture of the classical Latin with the languages of the barbarians who overran Italy, is erroneous. The Roman literary language, which the scholar learns from Horace and Cicero, was not the dialect of the common people. That the former could not have been corrupted by the mixture of the barbarous languages, is proved by the fact, that Latin was written in the beginning of the middle ages, long before the revival of learning, with a surprising purity, considering the circumstances. After the language of common life had been entirely changed by the invasion of the northern tribes, in its whole spirit rather than by the mere admixture of foreign words, then a new language of literature was formed, though the classical Roman still continued to be used. The new language was opposed to the variety of dialects which had grown out of common life; the formation of it, however, was slow, because the learned and the poets, from whom it was necessary to receive its stamp and development, despised it as an intruder on the Latin, which was venerable, as well by its age and the treasures handed down in it, as on account of the recollections of former greatness, with which the suffering Italians were fond of flattering themselves. Even down to the present day, that idiom, the melody of which carries us away in the most unimportant author, is not to be found as the common idiom of the people in any part of Italy. It is a mistake to suppose that Boccaccio's language is to be heard from the lips of Tuscan peasantgirls or Florentine porters. Even the Tuscan and Florentine dialect differs from the pure language, which, during the first centuries of Italian literature, is found purer in the poets of Sicily and Naples than in the contemporary writers of Tuscany. The circumstance, that the most distinguished Italian poets and prose-writers were born in Florence, and the authority assumed by later Tuscan academies, particularly the Crusca, are the causes why the Tuscan dialect, in spite of its rough gutturals, which are intolerable to the other Italians, became predominant in the language of literature. Dante, the creator, as it were, of Italian prose and poetry, and whose works are full of peculiarities of different dialects, distinctly maintains, in a treatise, " De vulgari Eloquentia," that it is inadmissible to attempt to raise a dialect to a literary language. Dante, indeed, distinguishes in the lingua volgare (so the language was called which originated after the invasion of the barbarians) a volgare illustre, car

dinale aulicum, curiale; but this sufficiently proves that he held the opinion above stated. Fernow mentions fifteen chief dialects, of which the Tuscan has six subdivisions. Those dialects in which no literary productions exist, are not enumerated. The Italian, as we find it at present, in literature and with the well-educated, is essentially a Latin dialect. Its stock is Latin, changed, to be sure, in its grammar and construction, by the infusion of the modern spirit into the antique, as the character of the people underwent the same change. A number of Latin forms of words, which, even in the time of the Romans, existed in common language, have been, by the course of time and revolutions in literature, elevated to a grammatical rank; and the same is very probably true of forms of phraseology. In many instances, the Italian exhibits changes in the Latin forms, which have evidently taken place in the same way in which common people, in our days, corrupt the correct modes of speech by a rapid, or slurred, or mistaken pronunciation.

GENOA is a maritime city in Italy, and the capital of a province in the Sardinian states. On the land side the city is surrounded by a double line of fortifications; the outer ones are extended beyond the hills which overlook the city. The harbor is enclosed and made secure by two moles, and the city lies in a semicircular form around it. This city has been frequently styled the magnificent, partly because of the beauty of its situation, and partly on account of the splendid palaces of the wealthy nobility. From the sea Genoa presents a very imposing appearance; but, notwithstanding its numerous palaces, it can scarcely be pronounced really beautiful, for, in consequence of its confined site, and of its being built on a declivity, the streets are frequently narrow, and so steep, that but few of them can be passed in carriages or on horseback. There are, however, several remarkable exceptions, as, for instance, the Strada Nuovissima, the Strada Balbi, and the Strada Nuova. These streets possess both regularity and beauty: the edifices, or rather palaces, are built of fine marble (which is obtained in large quantities from the neighboring quarries), and display not only the attractions of architecture, but the interiors are richly ornamented with paintings and sculptures by the first masters. The principal of these palaces are the Durazzo, Doria, Sera, Lercari, Carrega, and Balbi. The palazzo della Signora was the ancient palace of the doge.

The arsenal is situated in its immediate vicinity, and its neighborhood contains many ancient military and naval trophies, the most celebrated of which is the rostrum of an ancient galley. It is placed over the principal gate, and is supposed to be the only complete one now extant. Its length is about three spans, and its greatest thickness, two thirds of a foot. It was discovered in 1597, while cleaning the harbor. In the accompanying engraving is given a view of this interesting specimen of ancient naval architecture.

Rostrum of an Ancient Galley.

The cathedral, dedicated to St. Lorenzo, is a Gothic structure, incrusted and paved with marble, and adorned with a crucifixion by Barocchio. The bones of St. John Baptist are said to be deposited in one of the chapels in an iron urn, and in the sacristie is still preserved the vase of emerald said to have been given to Solomon by the queen of Sheba.

The Annunziata, though built at the sole expense of the Lomellino family, is one of the most costly churches in Genoa, and contains a fine picture of the Last Supper, by G. C. Procaccino.

St. Maria in Carignano, built in obedience to the will of Bendinelli Sauli, a noble Genoese, is an elegant piece of architecture; and the magnificent bridge, leading to it, was erected by a son of the abovenamed nobleman. This bridge contains seven arches, and is so lofty that from it you look down on houses seven stories high. The church contains a statue of St. Sebastiano, by Puget; another of the beatified Ales