of Russia, and dependent on foreign subsidies for its political existence. It was an easy matter for a designing power to turn this state of things to account. Thus, in 1739, when it was the interest of France to raise Sweden against Russia, she secured her object by means of the rival factions of the Hats and the Caps. The former, or the war party, was then dominant, entirely devoted to French interests, and hoped, by a treaty of perpetual alliance against Russia, to repair the losses which had been entailed by the disastrous follies of Charles XII.-3. The history of Poland exhibits the worst consequences of a vicious constitution. The only elective monarchy in Europe, it was subject, at the demise of each sovereign, to the perils of intestine commotion and foreign interference. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Augustus, elector of Saxony, had been placed on the throne by Russia; and, after twenty-four years' experience of the miseries of faction and conspiracy, bequeathed his kingdom in 1733 to his son, Augustus III., though not without a struggle on the part of France to place Stanislaus Lescinsky on the throne. The reign of Augustus opened no prospect of independence for Poland. Russia, the king-maker, was also the law-maker; and, after a period of thirty years of anarchy, the kingdom was transmitted in 1764, under Russian arms, to Count Poniatowski, a creature of Catherine II., under the name and title of Stanislaus Augustus. The detestable intrigue which subsequently issued in the dismemberment of this unhappy country, has been already noticed (p. 512).-4. The affairs of Denmark, since the fall of Sweden, had been in a tranquil condition. Under Christian VI., who succeeded Frederick IV. in 1730, and under Frederick V., who came to the throne in 1746, this country was devoted to the improvement of its own institutions. Manufactories were established, and commerce flourished. Even the Russian cabinet, under Elizabeth, made the preservation of its friendship a maxim of state policy, on account of the relations with Sweden. Nothing but the ancient feud with HolsteinGottorp, appeared to darken its political horizon.-5. Of Prussia, during this period, the connecting link between the north and the west of Europe, sufficient has been said in the preceding pages.

16. In 1740, the Empress Anne, niece of Peter the Great, died; and was succeeded, in the following year, by his daughter Elizabeth. This period opened in the north with the abovementioned war between Sweden and Russia, which had been contrived by France, in order to divert the latter power from interfering in the great question of the Austrian succession (p. 506). This war, which was unsuccessful to Sweden, was terminated in 1743 by the peace of Abo in Finland, on conditions that the river Kymen should be the boundary of the two kingdoms, and that Adolphus Frederic, of Holstein-Gottorp, should be the future successor to the crown of Sweden. At this time,

the rapid progress of Frederic induced the Russian cabinet to direct its attention principally to the affairs of the West, and to take an active part in the war on which the preponderance of Prussia or of Austria appeared to depend. Elizabeth died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III.; but, after a short reign of six months, a revolution precipitated him from the throne into the grave. His widow, Catherine II., became empress of Russia; and, with her, a new order of things commenced, not only for Russia, but for the North in general. The ratification of the separate peace with Prussia (p. 509), altered the relations of the North, by severing the alliance with Austria, and leaving Catherine unfettered by foreign ties. But the designs of Russia against Poland, which issued in the dismemberment of that country, led to the arming of another power.

17. Turkish War.-The encroachments of Russia in the direction of Poland, had long been a source of uneasiness and jealousy to the Turkish power. The alarm which was entertained for its northern provinces, was studiously increased by French influence, through the ambassador Vergennes, at the Porte; and, in 1768, war was declared against Russia, by Mustapha III., who then filled the throne of Constantinople. A contest ensued for six years, on sea and land. New and bold projects were formed to penetrate beyond the Danube-to urge the Greeks to rebellion-to despatch a squadron from the Baltic to the Archipelago, and threaten the capital-to contract alliances in Egypt, and wrest it from the Porte; and all these plans were partly executed; for a peace of almost thirty years had lulled the military energies of Turkey, while the armies of Russia were conducted by a Romanzoff. The theatre of war was thus expanded, and with circumstances disastrous to the Turks. Their fleet was destroyed in the bay of Tchesmé; their army defeated on the Pruth; and the provinces of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia, fell into the hands of the Russians. Meanwhile, the attention of Catherine was directed to affairs of a different nature. In 1771, a desolating pestilence penetrated from the army as far as Moscow; and, in the course of a single year, cut off nearly 100,000 An insurrection threatened to shake her throne; while in the two neighbouring states of Sweden and Poland, two opposite revolutions were taking place at the same time; that of Sweden being directly contrary to the objects and wishes of Russia.

men.

18. The Swedish revolution was effected by Gustavus III., who succeeded his father, Adolphus Frederic, in 1771. This prince had long wished to abolish the restrictions with which the aristocracy had fettered the monarchy since the death of Charles XII.; for, whether the Hats, supported by French subsidies, as in 1738, had the ascendency, or the Caps, under the influence of England and Russia, were in their turn victorious, as in 1766, both parties agreed in the common policy of making the senate sovereign arbiter of state affairs. With Gustavus, a new order

of things commenced. He seemed to have derived a talent from his great uncle Frederic; and found support in a class of free citizens, who had become weary of aristocratic tyranny. Assembling the officers of his army, he repaired to the senate-house; read a decree already prepared, and caused it to be signed by all the members; after which, the senate was dissolved. The new constitution left the states their rights; the council of the kingdom was merely deprived of its share in the government: no aggressive war could be waged without the consent of the states. By this revolution, one of the most limited monarchies of Europe was converted into one of the most absolute, without any loss of blood; and the designs of Russia, to whom the previous anarchy had been favourable, were completely thwarted.

19. By the intervention of Prussia, peace was concluded in 1774, between Russia and Turkey, by which the empress resigned Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Wallachia; but reserved the right of taking an interest in their affairs at Constantinople, together with the privilege of commercial navigation in the Black Sea and in all the Turkish seas. This peace was advantageous to Russia, but most calamitous for the Ottoman Porte; and the relations between these powers continued to be very complicated. Russia maintained a formal alliance with Prussia; and, since the Swedish revolution, entered into a secret compact with Denmark. Thus, the Turkish peace, and the Polish partition, introduced an order of things in the North, which seemed merely a transition to future convulsions. From this time, Catherine entertained the project of rearing a Grecian empire on the ruins of the Ottoman power; and the Porte became, consequently, the object of Russian policy.

SECTION IV.

OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA.

1. Affairs of the Carnatic. The period of the Seven Years' War in Europe, was also the period of the establishment of the British empire in India. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, since the death of Aurungzebe, the empire of Tamerlane had fallen into decay, while the petty governors, under the title of Soubhahs and Nawabs, assumed an independence in their several districts, under the merely nominal sovereignty of the Great Mogul at Delhi. The French and the English saw an opening in this state of things, not only for an extension of commercial enterprise, but also for the acquisition of territorial dominion. France set the example; and appears to have wanted only the ability to avail herself of means which were actually in her possession, to secure the dominion of India. During the

war of the Austrian succession, France enjoyed the ascendency in the eastern seas. In 1746, Labourdonnais, governor of Mauritius, wrested Madras from the hands of the English; but his success, awakening the jealousy of his countryman Dupleix, governor of Pondicherry, who had begun to entertain gigantic schemes of conquest in these parts, led to a dispute, which resulted in the disgrace, recall, and imprisonment, of the former. Madras was restored to the English at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; but the superior talents of Dupleix, secured to him the successful issue of the contests which ensued along the coast of Coromandel. In 1748, a theatre was opened for the display of his abilities in the Carnatic. By the death of the Nizam al Mulk, the viceroyalty of the Deccan descended to his son Nazir Jung; while the Carnatic, the richest and most extensive province of the viceroy, was governed by an ancient nawâb, called by the English, Anaverdy Khan. Two pretenders appeared; and their claims were supported by Dupleix. A battle was fought, in which the French distinguished themselves. Mirzapha Jung succeeded to the Deccan; Chunda Sahib, to the Carnatic: Anaverdy Khan was slain; and his son, Mahommed Ali, afterwards known as the nawâb of Arcot, put to flight. Dupleix was now declared governor of India, from the river Kistnah to Cape Comorin, a tract of country as large as France, with the command of seven thousand cavalry, unlimited pecuniary resources, and the absolute control over thirty millions of people. But France, at this time under the feeble reign of Louis XV., understood neither her own interests nor the abilities of her enterprising officer; and the golden opportunity was lost for ever. Dupleix was in a short time superseded; and returned to Europe, wrecked in fame and fortune, and sank into an obscure grave.

2. British Government of Bengal.—The name of Clive is famous in Anglo-Indian history. With his first visit to the East commences the glory of the British arms in that quarter of the world. Under his command, a company of merchants became the founders of an empire, far superior to the mother country in extent and population; and England was destined to become at once the mart of Indian wares, and the gulf of Indian treasure. The English triumphed everywhere. In 1756, Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, was taken, and Mahommed Ali placed on the throne of his father. Hostilities spread over the whole coast of Coromandel. In 1761, Masulipatam was taken; Pondicherry in the following year. The northern Circar was resigned in 1766; and the nawab of the Carnatic enjoyed perfect independence. But the operations of Clive were now directed to a more arduous task. In order to establish a territorial dominion in India, it became necessary to gain possession of that part of the country from which the great territorial revenues were derived. In Bengal, situated on the rich soil of the Ganges, the English had possessed a settlement, at Calcutta, as early as 1690; and had

confirmed it in a few years afterwards, by the erection of Fort-William. In 1756, the settlement and the fort were conquered by Surajah Dowlah, the nawab of Bengal. The captives, in number a hundred and forty-six, were incarcerated and suffered to perish in the Black Hole. To avenge this outrage, Clive immediately repaired with a fleet to Calcutta-reconquered the place-dispossessed the French of their settlement at Chandernagore-gained a decisive victory over the nawâb at Plassey, and placed Mir Jaffier on the throne of Bengal. A detail of these transactions, in which forty thousand infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry were brought into the field against a handful of men, of whom scarce a thousand were English soldiers, would savour of romance; but there was no need of conflict such as the Corteses and Pizarroes sustained in America; for here, the baseness of the Mogul nobles rendered a powerful aid to the vigour of British warfare. It is enough to say that, by this brief campaign, the supremacy of England was established in Northern India, where it has never since been shaken. Another foe, however, remained to be intimidated. In 1765, the nawâb of Oude, and Shah Alum, eldest son of the Great Mogul, assembled an army of forty thousand men, with the design of deposing the upstart whom the English had raised to the throne of Bengal. But the terror of the British name prevailed, and in a few days tranquillity was restored. As a token of gratitude, Mir Jaffier bestowed upon Clive the quit-rent, which the East India Company was bound to pay their nawab for the extensive domain held by them on the south of Calcutta, amounting to near tuirty thousand pounds sterling per annum. But the gratitude of the Hindoo governor soon yielded to sentiments of a different kind: he feared his benefactor; and looked around for the means of dissolving the tie between them. Since 1698, the Dutch merchants had possessed a settlement at Chinsurah. Communications were opened in this quarter; and a fleet of seven large Batavian ships from Java made their appearance in the Hoogley, and attempted to force a passage. The English encountered this new enemy on land and on sea-took their ships-routed their forces-and exacted from the authorities of Holland an ample apology for this infraction of treaties. About this time, a treaty was made at Allahabad, by Clive, with the Great Mogul, for the purpose of placing the government of Bengal on a new footing; when the titular monarch of India resigned into the hands of the Company the revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, in consideration of an annual sum of twelve lacs of rupees. By this arrangement, the association of Leadenhall Street, having previously acquired the commerce, secured the administration and sovereignty of the country, though the shadow of them was left to the former rulers. These important measures being concluded, Clive returned to England.

3. Meanwhile, the Company was far from realizing the advan