is founded by Charlemagne-The rise and progress of the monarchy of the Franks-The origin of the feudal system-State of the European manners in the age of Charlemagne-Government, arts and sciences, literature.

As collateral objects of attention, during this period, we survey the remains of the Roman empire in the east-The conquests and settlements of the Normans-The foundation and progress of the temporal dominion of the church of Rome-The separation of the Latin and Greek churches-The affairs of Italy-and The conquest of Spain by the Saracens.

The conquest of England by the Normans (A. D. 1066), solicits our attention to the history of Britain. Retrospective view of the British history, from its earliest period to the end of the AngloSaxon government in England-Observations on the government, laws, and manners of the Anglo-Saxons.

Collateral view of the state of the continental kingdoms of Europe, during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries-France under the Capetian race of monarchs-Conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily-State of the northern kingdoms of EuropeThe Eastern empire-Empire of Germany-Disputes of supremacy between the popes and the emperors.

The history of Britain still the principal object of attentionEngland under the kings of the Norman line, and the first princes of the Plantagenet branch. The conquest of Ireland under Henry II. introduces an anticipated progressive view of the political connexion between England and Ireland down to the present time. As we proceed in the delineation of the British history, we note particularly those circumstances which mark the growth of the English constitution.

At this period (A. c. 1095) all the kingdoms of Europe join in the crusades-A brief account is given of those enterprisesmoral and political effects of the crusades on the nations of Europe-Origin of chivalry, and rise of romantic fiction.

Short connected sketch of the state of the European nations after the crusades-Rise of the house of Austria-Decline of the feudal government in France-Establishment of the Swiss republics-Disorders in the Popedom-Council of Constance.

The history of Britain resumed-England under Henry III. and Edward I.-The conquest of Wales-The history of Scotland at this period intimately connected with that of England-View of the Scottish history from Malcolm Canmore to Robert Bruce -State of both kingdoms during the reigns of Edward II. and III.-The history of France connected with that of Britain— France itself won by Henry V.

We then turn to the state of the East, which at this period (A. c. 1216—1422), affords the most interesting object of attention-The progress of the Ottoman arms retarded for a while by the conquests of Tamerlane and of Scanderbeg- The Turks prosecute their victories under Mahomet the Great, to the total

extinction of the Constantinopolitan empire (A. c. 1453)—The constitution and policy of the Turkish empire.

Returning westward, we see France, in this age, emancipating herself from the feudal servitude-and Spain, by the union of Aragon and Castile, and the fall of the kingdom of the Moors, become one monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella (A. C. 1492). The history of Britain is resumed-sketch of the history of England down to the reign of Henry VIII. (A. c. 1492—1509) -Of Scotland during the reigns of the five Jameses-Delinea tion of the ancient constitution of the Scottish government.

The close of the fifteenth century is a most important era in the history of Europe. Learning and the sciences underwent, at that time, a very rapid improvement, and, after ages of darkness, shone out at once with surprising lustre. A connected view is presented of the progress of literature in Europe, from its revival down to this period. In the same age the advancement of navigation, and the course to India by the Cape of Good Hope, explored by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the European kingdoms.

After a short survey of the northern states of Europe, we direct our attention to the age of Charles V. (A. c. 1516-1555), which unites in one connected view the affairs of Germany, of Spain, of France, of England, and of Italy. The discovery of the new world, the Reformation in Germany and in England, and the splendour of the fine arts under the pontificate of Leo X., when they attained to their utmost perfection, render this period one of the most interesting in the annals of mankind.

The pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Chateau Cambresis (A. c. 1559), allows us for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asia. A short sketch is given of the modern history of Persia, and the state of the other kingdoms of Asia, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the history of India; the manners, laws, arts and sciences, and religion of the Hindoos; the history of China and Japan; the antiquity of the Chinese empire, its manners, laws, government, and attainments in the arts and sciences.

Returning to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of the continental kingdoms in the age of Philip II. of Spain, distinguished by the revolt of the Netherlands and the establishment of the republic of Holland-France and England next present a various and animated picture.

England under Elizabeth (A. c. 1558-1603)—The progress of the Reformation in Scotland-The distracted reign of Mary queen of Scots-The history of Britain pursued without interruption down to the Revolution, in 1688, and there closed by a sketch of the progress of the English constitution, and an examination of its nature at this period, when it becomes fixed and determined.

The history of the southern continental kingdoms is brought

down to the end of the reign of Louis XIV. of the northern, to the conclusion of the reign of Charles XII. of Sweden, and of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy.

We complete this view of Universal History to these periods, by a survey of the state of the arts and sciences, and of the progress of literature in Europe, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHRONOLOGY.

1. [The chronology of Archbishop Usher, which is founded on the modern Hebrew text of the Bible, is generally followed in this work. In the revision of the first section, however, it has been found necessary to give likewise the chronology of the Septuagint, on account of the impossibility of reconciling that of the Hebrew text with the facts of Scripture, and the early history of man.

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2. Since the time of Usher (1656), chronology has been made the subject of laborious investigation by eminent scholars in our own and other countries. These inquiries have led to the almost general agreement, that alterations were made in the Hebrew Scriptures, particularly in the chronology, after the Christian era. Evidence is also adduced to shew that they were regularly planned, and not the textual errors of transcribers. Fortunately the various translations made into other languages before that time have afforded the means of detection. The Greek version, or Septuagint, was made about 277 B.C., and was in general use among the Jews for more than four hundred years before the accuracy of its chronology was questioned. Besides, its authority is fully confirmed in being universally cited by our Saviour and his Apostles, in preference to the Hebrew text, as may be seen by referring to Horne's "Introduction to the Holy Scriptures.' The differ

ence between the two Chronologies amounts to no less than 1476 years in the period from Creation to the Birth of Christ; and of this difference, by far the greater part is due to the period before and immediately after the flood-the antediluvian and postdiluvian periods.

3. From the Antediluvian Period, 606 years have been abstracted by the transcribers of the Hebrew text. Of these, 600 years were obtained by reducing each of the ages at which six of the patriarchs (before Noah) begat their eldest sons, 100 years below the truth, and adding the difference to the remainder of their lives, in order to preserve the integrity of their whole lives. This scheme is rendered manifest by the circumstance of the remaining three of these ages being the same both in the Hebrew and the Septuagint, with the exception of six years only in that of Lamech. Besides, all these ages in

the Septuagint are self-consistent, each of them differing very little from the average of the whole; while in the Hebrew text, the least age is about one-third of the greatest, and onehalf of the average. An inspection of the table of Antediluvian Patriarchs in Section I., will verify these remarks. The age of Lamech was reduced only six years below the truth, and those of the other two (Jared and Methuselah) not at all; because, if these three ages and the remainder of the lives had been treated like the six ages above-mentioned, the patriarchs would have survived the flood! The accuracy of the Septuagint in the antediluvian period, is corroborated by the testimony of Josephus and all the ancient chronographers.

4. From the Postdiluvian Period, 780 years have been abstracted in the Hebrew text. Of these, 600 years were obtained in the very same manner as in the antediluvian period. The genealogy of Cainan, one of the postdiluvian patriarchs, has also been purposely omitted, by which 130 years more have been obtained; the evidence of St. Luke, c. 3: 36, being conclusive on this point; while the age of Nahor has been reduced 50 years below the truth. To avoid detection in this period, the Hebrew transcribers omitted the usual statements regarding the whole lives of the patriarchs, which are still to be found in the Samaritan text. Nevertheless, by an inspection of the table of postdiluvian patriarchs in Section I., it will be seen that, according to the Hebrew text, ten generations were all alive on the earth at the same time:-the last two antediluvians were contemporary with the postdiluvians, and witnessed the flood, the building of Babel, and the dispersion of nations:-Noah survived Peleg and Nahor, so that the earth was divided (pelegged) in the days of Noah rather than Peleg:-Noah was contemporary with Abraham for 58 years: Shem, the antediluvian, survived all the postdiluvians but Eber, was alive at the marriages of Isaac, Ishmael and Esau, and having buried nine generations of his descendants (including Abraham himself), witnessed the destruction of Sodom, and was not included in the covenant of circumcision:Terah was an idolater, while Noah and Shem, his pious ancestors were still alive:-Shem and seven of the postdiluvians were alive at Abraham's death: and Shem, Salah and Eber, survived him! All these difficulties vanish at once by the adoption of the Septuagint Chronology; there, the ages diminish according to a regular progression, and the deaths succeed one another in regular succession. In fine, according to the present Hebrew Chronology, it was impossible, in the natural order of things, that the earth could have been peopled to such an extent, as we find recorded in Scripture, in the days of Abraham. Archbishop Usher, feeling this difficulty perhaps more strongly than those above-mentioned, ventured on the bold expedient of assuming that Abraham was born when Terah was 130 years

old, contrary to the express words of Scripture (Gen. 11: 26.). Accordingly, his system of Chronology at this point differs from that of the Hebrew text by 60 years, and reduces the discrepancy between the two chronologies of this period to 720 years. The accuracy of the Septuagint in the postdiluvian period, is corroborated by the Samaritan text, Josephus, and all the ancient chronographers.

5. In conclusion, it may be of some importance to the general reader, just to advert to one argument against the Hebrew chronology, and in favour of the Septuagint, which to many may appear the most convincing of all. About the time of the Advent of our Saviour, an opinion had gained currency all over the world, and particularly in Judea (where no doubt it originated), that a great king was about to appear on the earth, who was to exercise universal dominion, and to restore to man the paradisiacal state, or golden age, in all its pristine glory. Five ages, each of 1000 years, of the world's history were already past, the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, the Heroic, and the Iron Ages,—and both the Jews and the sybils predicted that this Great King should appear in the middle of the sixth, or last age of the world, that is, in A.M. 5500. When, however, instead of a glorious temporal king and an earthly Messiah, which they expected, they first beheld the crucified Nazarene, contemptuously called by the Roman governor, "The king of the Jews;" and 40 years after saw the destruction of their city and temple, and the dispersion of their nation (which had been long foretold) completely and finally effected; then, they falsified their own Scriptures, and declared that the time of the Messiah was not yet come! Then, they got up the famous pseudo-prophecy of the House of Elias, as a counterpart to the former prediction, and inserted it in their Talmud, which they prefer to the sacred Scriptures. This tradition states, that the world should last 6000 years: of which 2000 shall pass without the law: 2000 under the law: and 2000 under the Messiah." Here, we see the reason why the Rabbis did, in their chronology, reduce the period, from Creation to the birth of Christ, to 3760 years; they expected that, by this falsification, the Jews would be kept in expectation of their Messiah, at least, for 240 years after this period. Accordingly, during the first two centuries after Christ, many vain attempts were made to set up false Messiahs for the restoration of the Jews. The period of 4000 years, however, has elapsed, and nearly 2000 more, according to their own showing, and yet their Messiah is not come; and now the Rabbis pronounce a bitter curse on all who calculate the times! It is surprising that Usher should have been misled by this false prediction, and should have fixed the birth of Christ at 4004 years from Creation, instead of 5476, the number which is actually obtained from the Old Testament Scriptures, as cited by our Saviour and his Apostles.]