THE TROUBADOURS. "When the cloth was ta'en away, In the eleventh century, the Troubadours made their appear ance in Provence. They were the founders of modern versification; frequently singing their own songs to the melody of their own harps; and when they were not able to do the latter, minstrels accompanied them, who recited the lays the Troubadour composed. Though in every country wherever there is a language, there is poetry, and wherever there is poetry, there is music; and in our own in particular, singing to the harp appears to have been early and successfully cultivated, yet the melodies were purely traditional; and the most ancient melodies extant, that have been set to a modern language, are those which are preserved in the Vatican Library, to the songs of the Troubadours, written in the ancient dialect of Provence. In the 12th, 13th, and part of the 14th centuries, the minstrels, bards, or jongleurs, the descendants of the Troubadours, occupied a conspicuous station in society. In our own country there were king's minstrels and queen's minstrels, who enjoyed a high degree of favour and protection. Yet, in some of the satires of the times, we find them abused under the names of chantier, fableeir, jangleeirs, and menestre; whilst their art is called janglerie, and they are said to be AntiChrist perverting the age by their merry jangles. Piers Ploughman, an ancient satirist, also accuses the minstrels of debauching the minds of the people, and of being tutors of idleness and the devil's discourse; and that they did imbibe some of the general licentiousness which, at the era of the Conquest, and for some time before, and some time after, overspread all England, is not unlikely. But for several reigns they were favoured by the noble and the fair, and protected by royal authority. In their baronial mansions, on all occasions of high and solemn feasts, the observances of chivalry and the charms of music were united. In the reign of Henry III. we find one Henry de Auranches, a Frenchman, dignified with the title of Master Henry, the versifier: which appellation, Mr. Warton observes, perhaps implies a character different from the royal minstrel, or joculator. In 1249, and in 1251, we find orders on the treasurer to pay this Master Henry one hundred shillings, probably a year's stipend ; and in the same reign, forty shillings and a pipe of wine were given to Richard, the king's harper, and a pipe of wine to Beatrice, his wife. In time, a gross degeneracy appears to have characterised the once-famed order of minstrels: the sounder part of society pursued them with prohibitions and invectives, till they were at last driven from the more respectable walks of life to the lower orders. Their irregularities became the more rude and offensive, till their order expired amid the general contempt of an improving nation.-Turner's History of England, vol. i. p. 432. The history of the Troubadours and the Provençal Poets has formed the subjects of many valuable publications of late years. In France, M. Raynouard has published not only a selection of their best writings under the title of Choix des Poesies des Troubadours, but also a Glossary of the Language in which they are written. M. Fauriel has also published in three vols. 8vo, Histoire de la Poesie Provençale. While in Germany, an accomplished M. Dier has given to the world both an Essay on their Poetry, and a volume on the lives and writings of the most distinguished Troubadours. Of the German Troubadours, or Minnesingers, the late Mr. Edgar Taylor published an interesting account in his Lays of the Minnesingers; and in 1838, Professor von der Hagen of Berlin, published a collection of their writings under the title of Deutsche Liederdichter des 12, 13, and 14 Jahrhunderts. COMMERCE, USE OF MONEY, COINS, BANKING SYSTEM, INTERNAL NAVIGATION, &c. ORIGIN OF COMMERCE, AND USE OF MONEY. The few wants of men in the first state of society, were supplied by barter in its rudest form. In barter the rational consideration is, what is wanted by the one, and what can be spared by the other. But savages are not always so clear-sighted. A savage who wants a knife will give for it any thing that is less useful to him at the time, without considering his future wants. But mankind improve by degrees, attending to what is wanted on the one side, and to what can be spared on the other. Barter, in its original form, proved miserably deficient when men and their wants multiplied. That sort of commerce could not be carried on at a distance; and even among neighbours it does not always happen, that the one can spare what the other wants; it was necessary, therefore, that some commodity should be found in general estimation, that would be gladly accepted in exchange for every other, and which should be neither bulky, expensive in keeping, nor consumable by time. Gold and Silver are metals that possess these properties in an eminent degree; and are also divisible into small parts, convenient to be given for goods of small value. Gold and silver, when first introduced into commerce, were bartered like other commodities, by bulk merely; but shortly, instead of being given loosely by bulk, every portion was weighed in scales, but weight was no security against mixing base metals with gold and silver. To prevent that fraud pieces of gold and silver are impressed with a public stamp, vouching both the purity and the quantity; and such pieces are called Coin. This was an improvement in commerce, and at first probably deemed complete. It was not foreseen, that these metals wear by much handling in the course of circulation, and consequently, that in time the public stamp is reduced to be a voucher of the purity only, not of the quantity. This embarrassment was remedied by the use of paper-money; and paper money is attended with another advantage, that of preventing the loss of much gold and silver by wearing. When gold or silver, in bullion, was exchanged with other commodities, such commerce passed under the common name of barter, or permutation: when current coin was exchanged, such commerce was termed the buying and selling; and the money exchanged was termed the price of goods. The Phoenicians were the earliest people who are recorded to have devoted themselves to commerce. It seems they performed long voyages, and established colonies in remote countries, like the moderns. The Greeks and Romans were not insensible of the value of commerce, and they pursued it at different periods with eagerness and success. The Venetians, from the year 900 to 1500, enjoyed a monopoly of the produce of the East, and thereby became a wealthy and powerful people. The Genoese proved their rivals; but certain free towns of Germany, called Hanse Towns, afterwards disputed with the Italians the palm of commerce. The Portuguese, on discovering a new route to India, by the Cape of Good Hope, became for a time a considerable commercial people; but the Dutch drove them from their India possessions, and for a century carried on half the trade of the world. The English, however, have taken the lead of all other nations; and by means of their invincible fleets, their free constitution, their domestic agriculture and manufactures, and their valuable colonies in every sea, they have nearly engrossed the commerce of the world to themselves. Money as a medium of commerce is first mentioned in Genesis xxiii., when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, A.M. 2139. Money, which is sometimes said to have been first made at Argos, 894 years B.C., increased eighteen times in value from 1290 to 1789, and twelve times its value from 1530 to 1789. Silver has increased thirty times its value since the Norman Conquest; viz, a pound in that age was three times the quantity it is at present, and ten times its value in purchasing any commodity. ORIGIN OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN ENGLAND. The origin of all weights and measures in England, was derived from a corn of wheat, (vide Statutes of 51 Henry III., 31 Edward I., 12 Henry VII.) which enacted, that 32 of them, well dried and gathered from the middle of the ear, were to make one pennyweight; but it was subsequently thought better to divide the dwt, in 24 equal parts, called grains. All measures of capacity, both liquid and dry, were at first taken from Troy-weight, and several laws were passed in the reign of Henry III. enacting, that 8 lbs. Troy of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear, and well dried, should make one gallon of Wine measure. The standard Wine Gallon, which was kept sealed at Guildhall, was generally reckoned to contain 231 cubic inches; but Dr. Wybard, in his Tectometry, having asserted that it did not contain more than 224 or 225 cubic inches, an experiment was made, May 25th, 1688, to ascertain the fact. The Commissioners of Excise caused a vessel to be made in form of a parallelopipedon, each side of its base was 4 inches, and its depth 14 inches, so that its just content was 224. In presence of the Lord Mayor, the Commissioners of the Excise, the Rev. Mr. Flamstead (Astronomer-Royal), Mr. Halley, and several other eminent mathematicians, this vessel was very exactly filled with water, and being carefully emptied into the Standard Wine Gallon, did so accurately fill it, that all present were fully convinced it contained only 224 cubic inches. However, it was not thought convenient to alter the supposed content of 231, and accordingly the error continued until the recent introduction of the new Imperial Gallon. The old Beer or Ale Gallon of 282 cubic inches, was intended to bear the same proportion to Avoirdupois-weight as the Wine did to Troy; for it was founded by several nice experiments, that the 1 lb. Avoirdupois was equal to 14 oz. 11 dwts. 15 grs. Troy; being very near 14 oz. and six tenths. Hence 12: 231: 14-6 to 281,05, and by a trial of the Standard Ale Quart, kept in the Exchequer, (12 Charles II.), it was found to contain just 70 cubic inches, and consequently the gallon 70 × 4 282. The old Dry or Corn Gallon was originally meant to bear a mean (or nearly so) between the Wine and Beer Gallon; it was, previous to 1697, computed to hold 2724 cubic inches; but a statute made in that year enacted, the Winchester Bushel should be round, with a plain and even bottom, 18 inches throughout, and 8 inches deep; consequently, it contained 215,042 cubic inches for the old legal Corn Gallon. Weights and measures were invented 869 B.C.; fixed to a standard in England, 1257; regulated, 1492; equalized, 1826. ALMANACS. Almanacs are said to have originated with the Northern Nations, who formerly used to engrave, or cut upon square sticks about a foot in breadth, the courses of the moon of the whole year; whereby they could tell when the new moons and changes should appear, as also their festival days; and this they called an Al-mon-aght, that is to say, all must heed. The more correct etymology is, however, unquestionably from the Arabic al, the article, and mana or manah to count. They were first published by Martin Ilkus, at Luda in Poland, in 1470; compiled by Muller, in their present form, 1473; the Stationers' Company of London claimed an exclusive right to publish them till 1779; and a million annually at one time are said to have been sold. For some curious particulars of the contents of the earlier almanacs, see the Companion to the Almanac for 1829. COIN. At the Conquest, the little coined silver that we had, bore the same countenance with that which had been current in the days of our Saxon kings; for the Conqueror's penny is of the same size as them, presenting his head full-faced, a cross in his right hand, and a sceptre in his left, inscribed Willem Rex Anglo. On the reverse, an arms fleirée, with four sceptres quarterly, the inscription Jesthn on Herefor. Stowe says, the conqueror, as he appeared on his coins, wanted a beard, and quotes William of Malmesbury to prove that the Normans never wore any; he also mentions, that some of the conqueror's coins had Le Rey Wilam inscribed on them, though all that are now attributed to him have either the simple style of Rex, or with the addition of An or Angolo. It is presumed that the coinage of money in this fashion, was one of the improvements which the Norman court received from our Edward the Confessor, who by their own writers is acknowledged to have taught them a great many English customs. All great sums were paid at this time by weight; thus, the monks of Ely paid the king 700 marks; and Edgar Atheling's allowance was a pound of silver daily (1074). The purveyances were even changed into money, and the sheriff collected them in the following proportions. Instead of Bread for 100 men, one shilling. Provender for 20 horses, four pence. But when these little contributions were thus gathered, the collectors still paid the gross sums into the exchequer by weight. |