PARTS OF SPEECH.

THE NOUN.

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CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS.

Principle of Classification :- -What grammatical purpose is to

be served ?..

The common definition of the noun, not a definition, but a sort

of sub-division.....
The actual classification is on a different plan...
Enumeration of five classes (each with grammatical peculi-

arities) : PROPER, COMMON, ABSTRACT (adjective and verb),
and the recently added MATERIAL and COLLECTIVE Nouns ....

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PROPER NOUNS.

Range of exemplification extended. ..

Disturbing considerations : departures from type—Some Singu-

lar names are extended to new individuals...

Other Proper names (e.g., of families) assume temporarily

the aspect of class names

Special explanation of the term 'Meaningless'

Probably all Proper names once had meaning..
Why Meaningless', then ? The meaning tends to drop

away, the name becoming a mere mark to know the ob-

ject by..

Proper Nouns are often many-worded names...

Mixed Proper (or Singular) names.....

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COMMON NOUNS.

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The typical example is common, general, significant, and a

class noun..

It applies to each of a plurality of agreeing individuals in virtue

of their agreement....

The signification is the sum of the agreements.

Significant names are frequently Singular.

Abstract names used figuratively.

General names limited (especially by demonstrative and

possessive adjectives) so as to mean a single individual..

ABSTRACT NOUNS.

The Adjective a fruitful source of these......

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The Adjective Abstract names in separation the point of com-

munity of individuals entitled to the adjective.......

By what marks may the Abstract noun be recognized ?

The Verb Abstracts are of higher importance, grammatically... 28

Abstracts whose origin (adj. or verb) is not obvious .

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History of some examples traced...

A few Abstract Nouns come from other (chiefly class) nouns. ...

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Use of Adjective Abstract Nouns as Common Nouns.

Abstract Nouns often take the character of Common nouns-a

plural, or “a, an' in the singular..

The meaning is no longer abstract..

Conversions often uncalled for......

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Use of Verb Abstracts as Common Nouns.

A Verb Abstract often takes a plural (or the indefinite article

in the singular)

The meaning ceases to be abstract, denoting special instances or

occasions of the action.
This conversion also very liable to abuse........

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MATERIAL NOUNS.

Sources of such Names ; Examples......

Sometimes converted into Class Nouns (by plural or indefinite

article); familiar examples......

New meanings developed......

Various examples waver between Material and Abstract; decision

not essential ;-why?

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THE PRONOUN.

Distinction of Persons and Things, inoperative in nouns,

prominent here

The so-called Third Personal Pronouns classed as Demonstra-

tives. Why?....

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PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON.

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Various applications of 'we'.

Different uses are often mixed, or occur close together.

Resulting ambiguity ; methods of cure....

I’for we'; great force of singularity.....

PRONOUNS OF THE SECOND PERSON.

Anomalous nsages ; motive discussed and illustrated...

The familiar ‘thou ' early used for energetic contempt...

You'representative ; when allowable, and with what effect...
• Thou' and 'you' are often carelessly mixed...
Older distinction of 'ye' and 'you'....

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DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

The careful use of these is surpassingly important for clearness..

Regrettable weakness of English in demonstrative pronouns

Shortcomings are in part made good by adjectives.......

Main rules for reference to antecedent: Prominence and Prox-

imity.....

Examples : with casual notice of other devices for reference ....

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PAGB

Balanced structure lightens ambiguity..

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Insertion of explanatory noun..

Various modes of reference of it :

Backward to noun, infinitive, or clause...

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Forward to infinitive or clause...

'It' anticipates a noun only in familiar coinposition..... 45

Varieties of the Vague use of it'.

Ambiguity arises from mixture of references.

Balanced structure mitigates ambiguity..

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Examples of ambiguous construction ; remedies

• It is, was, &c.'-valuable idiom for emphatic inversions..

Alternative modes :-Corresponding verbal noun....

• There is'; more general subject; complement prominent

in adverbial form ; personal subject...

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• It is to be reserved mostly for prospective reference..

Illustrative cases continued...

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THEY (no sex) confounds Persons and Things..

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Perplexed references exemplified...

Criticism and disentanglement of such cases...

Balanced structure still advantageous...

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They'incomplete without adjunct; simulated forward refer-

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ence..

This and THAT as Pronouns.

Contrasted reference ; analogy of Latin usage..

• This' and 'That’ more energetic than the ordinary demon-

stratives..
Modes of reference exemplified (compare 'It'):
*This' refers backward to noun, infinitive, or clause..

-forward to infinitive or clause.....

'That' refers only backward, to noun, infinitive, or clause
Substitution for 'it' and 'they'a gain in clearness, emphasis,

and variety.

•That’and This 'save repetition of names, especially in ele-

vated language ...

They point out individuals (not previously named) as nearer or

remoter; mostly in elevated style....

THAT OF (French idiom) active in saving repetition of nouns...

Tendency to overdo it, to the prejudice of native forms.

Equivalent modes :-Conversion by the Possessive Case,—by

the prepositional adverbial phrase...

For emphasis, the noun must be repeated..

• That of' omitted ; comma or dash, or explanatory phrase

sometimes supplied..

More extensive remodelling.

In comparisons, balance usually demands repetition of the noun

Further examples showing alternative forms.

* That’takes also participles and clauses as adjuncts..

Absolute use of 'that': apparent forward reference...

The INDEFINITE DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns..

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They'— the popular voice ; examples and equivalents..
•One' is more important..

Special idiom for reference to 'one

Substitutes remarked upon : 'I' or

-'men', 'you' (familiar, vivid).

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we

"a man

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RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

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The Co-ordinating use explained....

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Who' and 'which 'to be kept solely for Co-ordination ; equi-

valents

Typical cases..

Relative clauses (co-ordinating) of adverbial nature

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• Which' with infinitive or clause as antecedent.

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The Restrictive use explained.

The restrictive relative occasionally resolved.

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. That 'to be kept solely for Restriction....

The idiomatic use absolutely necessary for clearness.

Ambiguous constructions exemplified

Relatives overdone : means of relief suggested..

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Rare use of 'that'as co-ordinating ; instances

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That' after Personal pronouns : discussion

Specially urgent cases for 'that':

After a Superlative ; after 'only', 'all'...

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After a Negative ; in other (more or less) similar cases. 70

• Whose', possessive relative, both co-ordinating and restrictive 71

Ambiguity avoided by substitutions—'of whom', of which ',

&c.

The Adverbial Equivalents are highly important for variety and

lightness

Relative adverbs stand for preposition and pronoun: 'where '

and compounds, whence", whither', 'when ', for ‘in (on,

at, by, to, from, &c.), which '.

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But (by ellipsis) an emphatic substitute for that not

Must be preceded by a negative (or equivalent).,

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As (also by ellipsis) is used for that after “such' and 'same 74

Miscellaneous examples ; criticisms..

Relative resolved for emphasis

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Incongruous forms of adjunct objectionable..

Adjective (for adverbial) clause after .so '...

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Preposition at end of adjective clause often dropped, especially

in phrases of time...

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Participle for clause..

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Disadvantages of that'enumerated :

A preposition is thrown to the end of the clause...

"That’ may be ambiguous through not distinguishing per-

sons and things; as with neutral antecedents like 'one',

all'.

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Gratuitous re-assertion of the distinction censurable.

* That' might be an awkward transition from whose 'in-

troducing a previous co-ordinate clause ..

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Older relative usages :

Scriblerus, Milton, St. Matthew.....

*Such who (that, as),-whose, - where,—wherein

Interchange of who' and 'which '. The which

Adverbial substitutes carried to excess..

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THE ADJECTIVE.

The Definition further explained...

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Typical adjectives (besides narrowing a class, and adding to its

meaning) have three characteristics—comparison, singleness

of meaning, and being intelligible in themselves......

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

Any adjective may be expanded into an equivalent clause....... 87

Clauses are useful for emphatic or complicated qualifications...

Adjective Clauses abbreviated.

Participle and Prepositional Phrase give the full sense concisely 88

Omitted words essential to the full sense are to be supplied from

the hearer's previous knowledge....

THE NOUN AS ADJECTIVE.

Nouns do the work of Adjectives : an extensive process.... 89

Such nouns want three additional peculiarities of the typi-

cal adjectives ; examples discussed....

Usage explained by ellipsis of known particulars...

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Many such cases were never full clauses, mere assimilations.... 92

Used in headings, titles, &c. ; in specifying material...

Contrast with the classical usage

Brevity gained without loss of intelligibility.

ANOMALOUS OR ARTIFICIAL ADJECTIVES.

Instances examined : Adjective form with Noun force... 93

The sense has to be filled up as for nouns...

The formal Adjective, where not misleading, is a gain only to

the ear : suffix 'an'

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Great variety of the Adjective form in elliptical combinations.. 96

Extreme illustration from Latin : nouns must take Adjective

form....

Artificial Adjectives become regular by settling down to a con-

stant or uniform meaning..

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This accounts for Adjectives derived from nouns by suffixes....

THE PREPOSITIONAL ADJECTIVE PHRASE.

An abridged form of the Adjective Clause.....