A Companion to the Higher English Grammar

The common definition of the noun, not a definition, but a sort
of sub-division...

The actual classification is on a different plan...
Enumeration of five classes (each with grammatical peculi-
arities) PROPER, COMMON, ABSTRACT (adjective and verb),
and the recently added MATERIAL and COLLECTIVE Nouns ....

PROPER NOUNS.

Range of exemplification extended..

Disturbing considerations: departures from type-Some Singu-

lar names are extended to new individuals...

Other Proper names (e.g., of families) assume temporarily

the aspect of class names

Special explanation of the term 'Meaningless'

Probably all Proper names once had meaning..

Why Meaningless', then? The meaning tends to drop
away, the name becoming a mere mark to know the ob-
ject by....

Proper Nouns are often many-worded names.................

Mixed Proper (or Singular) names...............

COMMON NOUNS.

The typical example is common, general, significant, and a

class noun

It applies to each of a plurality of agreeing individuals in virtue

of their agreement...

The signification is the sum of the agreements.

Significant names are frequently Singular..

Abstract names used figuratively...

General names limited (especially by demonstrative and

possessive adjectives) so as to mean a single individual..

ABSTRACT NOUNS.

The Adjective a fruitful source of these.....

The Adjective Abstract names in separation the point of com-
munity of individuals entitled to the adjective..

By what marks may the Abstract noun be recognized ?

The Verb Abstracts are of higher importance, grammatically...
Abstracts whose origin (adj. or verb) is not obvious.

History of some examples traced...

A few Abstract Nouns come from other (chiefly class) nouns...

Use of Adjective Abstract Nouns as Common Nouns.

Abstract Nouns often take the character of Common nouns-a

plural, or 'a, an' in the singular...

The meaning is no longer abstract...

Conversions often uncalled for.....

Use of Verb Abstracts as Common Nouns.

A Verb Abstract often takes a plural (or the indefinite article

in the singular).

The meaning ceases to be abstract, denoting special instances or

occasions of the action

This conversion also very liable to abuse.....

MATERIAL NOUNS.

Sources of such Names; Examples..

Sometimes converted into Class Nouns (by plural or indefinite

article); familiar examples..

New meanings developed...

Various examples waver between Material and Abstract; decision

not essential;-why?.....

THE PRONOUN.

Distinction of Persons and Things, inoperative in nouns,

prominent here..

The so-called Third Personal Pronouns classed as Demonstra-

tives. Why?.....

PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON.

Various applications of 'we

Different uses are often mixed, or occur close together..

Resulting ambiguity; methods of cure..

'I' for 'we'; great force of singularity.

PRONOUNS OF THE SECOND PERSON.

Anomalous usages; motive discussed and illustrated..

The familiar thou' early used for energetic contempt.....

You' representative; when allowable, and with what effect...

Thou' and 'you' are often carelessly mixed...

Older distinction of 'ye' and 'you '...

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

The careful use of these is surpassingly important for clearness.. 41

Regrettable weakness of English in demonstrative pronouns.

Shortcomings are in part made good by adjectives......

Main rules for reference to antecedent: Prominence and Prox-

imity....

Examples with casual notice of other devices for reference...

Balanced structure lightens ambiguity.

Insertion of explanatory noun.

Various modes of reference of IT:

Backward to noun, infinitive, or clause..

Forward to infinitive or clause...

'It' anticipates a noun only in familiar composition..... 45

Varieties of the Vague use of 'it'.

Ambiguity arises from mixture of references..

Balanced structure mitigates ambiguity..

Examples of ambiguous construction; remedies

'It is, was, &c.'-valuable idiom for emphatic inversions...

Alternative modes :-Corresponding verbal noun...

"There is'; more general subject; complement prominent

in adverbial form; personal subject...

'It is to be reserved mostly for prospective reference....

Illustrative cases continued..

THEY (no sex) confounds Persons and Things..

Perplexed references exemplified...........

Criticism and disentanglement of such cases...

Balanced structure still advantageous......

'They' incomplete without adjunct; simulated forward refer-

ence..

THIS and THAT as Pronouns.

Contrasted reference; analogy of Latin usage..

'This' and 'That' more energetic than the ordinary demon-
stratives..

Modes of reference exemplified (compare 'It'):

'This' refers backward to noun, infinitive, or clause...

-forward to infinitive or clause....

'That' refers only backward, to noun, infinitive, or clause

Substitution for 'it' and 'they' a gain in clearness, emphasis,

and variety..

'That' and 'This' save repetition of names, especially in ele-

vated language..

They point out individuals (not previously named) as nearer or

remoter; mostly in elevated style...

THAT OF (French idiom) active in saving repetition of nouns...

Tendency to overdo it, to the prejudice of native forms

Equivalent modes :-Conversion by the Possessive Case,—by

the prepositional adverbial phrase....

For emphasis, the noun must be repeated..

"That of' omitted; comma or dash, or explanatory phrase

sometimes supplied...

More extensive remodelling.

In comparisons, balance usually demands repetition of the noun

Further examples showing alternative forms...

'That' takes also participles and clauses as adjuncts..

Absolute use of 'that': apparent forward reference.....

The INDEFINITE DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns..

'They — the popular voice; examples and equivalents..
'One' is more important..

Special idiom for reference to 'one

Substitutes remarked upon: 'I' or 'we', 'a man

-'men', 'you' (familiar, vivid)..

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The Co-ordinating use explained.....

'Who' and 'which' to be kept solely for Co-ordination; equi-

valents

Typical cases...

Relative clauses (co-ordinating) of adverbial nature

'Which' with infinitive or clause as antecedent..

The Restrictive use explained..

The restrictive relative occasionally resolved.

"That' to be kept solely for Restriction........

The idiomatic use absolutely necessary for clearness..

Ambiguous constructions exemplified..

Relatives overdone: means of relief suggested..

Rare use of that ' as co-ordinating; instances

'That' after Personal pronouns discussion

Specially urgent cases for that':

After a Superlative; after 'only', 'all'.

After a Negative; in other (more or less) similar cases

"Whose', possessive relative, both co-ordinating and restrictive 71

Ambiguity avoided by substitutions-' of whom', 'of which',

&c.

The Adverbial Equivalents are highly important for variety and

lightness

Relative adverbs stand for preposition and pronoun: 'where'

and compounds, 'whence",

at, by, to, from, &c.), which'.

whither', 'when', for 'in (on,

BUT (by ellipsis) an emphatic substitute for that-not'

Must be preceded by a negative (or equivalent)..

As (also by ellipsis) is used for 'that ' after 'such' and 'same

Miscellaneous examples; criticisms..

Relative resolved for emphasis

Incongruous forms of adjunct objectionable..

Adjective (for adverbial) clause after 'so'..

Preposition at end of adjective clause often dropped, especially

in phrases of time

Participle for clause.

Disadvantages of 'that' enumerated :

A preposition is thrown to the end of the clause...

"That' may be ambiguous through not distinguishing per-

sons and things; as with neutral antecedents like one',

'all'

Gratuitous re-assertion of the distinction censurable..
'That' might be an awkward transition from 'whose' in-
troducing a previous co-ordinate clause.......